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  • 1 Inoue Masaru

    [br]
    b. 1 August 1843 Hagi, Choshu, Japan
    d. 2 August 1910 London, England
    [br]
    Japanese "Father of Japanese Railways".
    [br]
    In the early 1860s, most travel in Japan was still by foot and the Japanese were forbidden by their government to travel abroad. Inoue was one of a small group of students who left Japan illegally in 1863 for London. There he studied English, mathematics and science, and afterwards mineralogy and railways. Inoue returned to Japan in 1868, when the new Meiji Government reopened the country to the outside world after some 200 years of isolation. Part of its policy, despite opposition, was to build railways; at Inoue's suggestion, the gauge of 3 ft 6 in. (1.07 m) was adopted. Initially capital, engineers, skilled labour and materials ranging from locomotives to pencils and stationery were all imported from Britain; Edmund Morel was the first Chief Engineer. In 1871 Inoue was appointed Director of the Government Railway Bureau and he became the driving force behind railway development in Japan for more than two decades. The first line, from Tokyo to Yokohama, was opened in 1872, to be followed by others, some of them at first isolated. The number of foreigners employed, most of them British, peaked at 120 in 1877 and then rapidly declined as the Japanese learned to take over their tasks. In 1878, at Inoue's instance, construction of a line entirely by Japanese commenced for the first time, with British engineers as consultants only. It was ten years before Japanese Railways' total route was 70 miles (113 km) long; over the next ten years, this increased to 1,000 miles (1,600 km) and the system continued to grow rapidly. During 1892–3, a locomotive was built in Japan for the first time, under the guidance of Locomotive Superintendent R.F.Trevithick, grandson of the pioneer Richard Trevithick: it was a compound 2–4–2 tank engine, with many parts imported from Britain. Locomotive building in Japan then blossomed so rapidly that imports were discontinued, with rare exceptions, from 1911. Meanwhile Inoue had retired in 1893; he was on a visit to England at the time of his death.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Viscount 1887.
    Bibliography
    1909, "Japanese communications: railroads", in Count Shigenobu Okuma (ed.), Fifty Years of New Japan (English version ed. M.B.Huish), Smith, Elder, Ch. 18.
    Further Reading
    T.Richards and K.C.Rudd, 1991 Japanese Railways in the Meiji Period 1868–1912, Uxbridge: Brunel University (one of the few readily available accounts in English of the origins of Japanese Railways).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Inoue Masaru

  • 2 более ... десятилетий

    Более (двух) десятилетий-- Sulfidation corrosion has been intensively studied for more than two decades.

    Русско-английский научно-технический словарь переводчика > более ... десятилетий

  • 3 Miguel I, king

    (1802-1866)
       The third son of King João VI and of Dona Carlota Joaquina, Miguel was barely five years of age when he went to Brazil with the fleeing royal family. In 1821, with his mother and father, he returned to Portugal. Whatever the explanation for his actions, Miguel always took Carlota Joaquina's part in the subsequent political struggles and soon became the supreme hope of the reactionary, clerical, absolutist party against the constitutionalists and opposed any compromise with liberal constitutionalism or its adherents. He became not only the symbol but the essence of a kind of reactionary messianism in Portugal during more than two decades, as his personal fortunes of power and privilege rose and fell. With his personality imbued with traits of wildness, adventurism, and violence, Miguel enjoyed a life largely consumed in horseback riding, love affairs, and bull- fighting.
       After the independence of Brazil (1822), Miguel became the principal candidate for power of the Traditionalist Party, which was determined to restore absolutist royal power, destroy the constitution, and rule without limitation. Miguel was involved in many political conspiracies and armed movements, beginning in 1822 and including the coups known to history as the "Vila Francada" (1823) and the "Abrilada" (1824), which were directed against his father King João VI, in order to restore absolutist royal power. These coup conspiracies failed due to foreign intervention, and the king ordered Miguel dismissed from his posts and sent into exile. He remained in exile for four years. The death of King João VI in 1826 presented new opportunities in the absolutist party, however, and the dashing Dom Miguel remained their great hope for power.
       His older brother King Pedro IV, then emperor of Brazil, inherited the throne and wrote his own constitution, the Charter of 1826, which was to become the law of the land in Portugal. However, his daughter Maria, only seven, was too young to rule, so Pedro, who abdicated, put together an unusual deal. Until Maria reached her majority age, a regency headed by Princess Isabel Maria would rule Portugal. Dom Miguel would return from his Austrian exile and, when Maria reached her majority, Maria would marry her uncle Miguel and they would reign under the 1826 Charter. Miguel returned to Portugal in 1828, but immediately broke the bargain. He proclaimed himself an absolutist King, acclaimed by the usual (and last) Cortes of 1828; dispensed with Pedro's Charter; and ruled as an absolutist. Pedro's response was to abdicate the emperorship of Brazil, return to Portugal, defeat Miguel, and place his young daughter on the throne. In the civil war called the War of the Brothers (1831-34), after a seesaw campaign on land and at sea, Miguel's forces were defeated and he went into exile, never to return to Portugal.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Miguel I, king

  • 4 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 5 durante

    prep.
    during (mientras).
    por favor, desconecten sus teléfonos móviles durante la proyección please insure mobile phones are switched off during the film
    durante la guerra during the war
    estuvo sin beber durante un año he went (for) a year without drinking
    durante el verano mejoró su situación económica his financial situation improved over the summer
    durante una hora for an hour
    durante toda su vida throughout her life
    m.
    Durante, Jimmy Durante.
    * * *
    1 during, in, for
    * * *
    prep.
    during, for
    * * *
    PREP [con espacio de tiempo] during; [expresando la duración] for

    ¿qué hiciste durante las vacaciones? — what did you do in o during the holidays?

    ¿ha llovido durante el fin de semana? — did it rain at o over the weekend?

    durante toda la noche — all through the night, all night long

    DURANTE Para traducir durante tenemos que diferenciar si hace referencia a cuándo ocurre la acción o a cuánto dura. ¿Cuándo ocurre la acción? ► Traducimos durante por during si nos referimos al intervalo de tiempo en que ocurre la acción, cuando la referencia temporal la indica un suceso o actividad determinados: Se conocieron durante la guerra They met during the war Se puso enferma durante una visita a Madrid She became ill during a visit to Madrid La bomba hizo explosión durante la entrega de premios The bomb went off during the prize-giving ceremony ► También se traduce por during cuando la referencia temporal viene indicada por un periodo de tiempo concreto: El tráfico es peor durante el verano The traffic is worse during the summer Durante los años treinta la economía se hallaba en dificultades The economy was in difficulties during the 1930s Si se trata de una acción progresiva, o que continúa o que se repite durante todo el periodo de tiempo que se indica, es preferible traducir durante por over: La situación ha empeorado durante los últimos años The situation has worsened over the last few years Durante el fin de semana el actor ha sido visto en varias ocasiones There have been several sightings of the actor over the weekend ¿Cuánto dura la acción? ► Si nos referimos a la duración de la acción, durante se traduce generalmente por for: Llevo sufriendo dolores de cabeza durante más de treinta años I've been having headaches for more than 30 years Fue periodista durante cuatro años He was a journalist for four years Para otros usos y ejemplos ver la entrada
    * * *

    durante 1980 — during o in 1980

    los precios aumentaron un 0,3% durante el mes de diciembre — prices rose by 0.3% in December

    * * *
    = at the stage of, during, throughout.
    Ex. At the stage of subject analysis the indexer decides which, and there how many, concepts are selected for indexing purposes.
    Ex. This article singles out four trends which have influenced the work of UNESCO during the last decade.
    Ex. Throughout this chapter the term 'document' is used to refer to any item which might be found in a library or information center or data base.
    ----
    * aprendizaje durante toda la vida = lifelong education.
    * ausentarse durante + Expresión Temporal = not be back for + Expresión Temporal.
    * autoaprendizaje durante toda la vida = lifelong learning.
    * durante algunos años = for some years, over a period of years.
    * durante algún tiempo = for a while, for some time, for some while, for some time to come, for days.
    * durante años = for years.
    * durante años y años = for years and years (and years).
    * durante casi + Fecha = for the best part of + Fecha, for the better part of + Fecha.
    * durante casi todo el año = for the best part of the year.
    * durante cierto tiempo = over a period of time.
    * durante cuánto tiempo = how long.
    * durante demasiado tiempo = for too long.
    * durante días = for days.
    * durante días y días = for days on end.
    * durante el año pasado = over the past year.
    * durante el apogeo de = during the height of, during the heyday of.
    * durante el auge de = at the height of, during the height of, during the heyday of.
    * durante el descanso = at breaktime.
    * durante el día = by day, daytime [day-time], in the daytime, during the daytime, during daytime.
    * durante el entrenamiento = in practice.
    * durante el fin de semana = over the weekend.
    * durante el próximo año = over the next year.
    * durante el transcurso de = over the course of.
    * durante el transcurso de los acontecimientos = in the course of events, during the course of events.
    * durante el transcurso de muchos años = over many years.
    * durante el transporte = in transit.
    * durante el último año = over the last year.
    * durante el vuelo = in-flight.
    * durante este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.
    * durante este tiempo = in this time.
    * durante + Expresión Temporal = for + Expresión Temporal, over + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante + Expresión Temporal + y + Expresión Temporal = for + Expresión Temporal + on end.
    * durante generaciones = for generations.
    * durante la bajamar = at low tide.
    * durante la búsqueda = at the search stage.
    * durante la década de = through + Década.
    * durante la guerra = during wartime, wartime [wart-time], war years, the.
    * durante la mayor parte de = for much of.
    * durante la mayor parte del año = for the best part of the year.
    * durante la Navidad = at Christmas time.
    * durante la noche = overnight, night-time.
    * durante la Pascua = at Christmas time.
    * durante la pleamar = at high tide.
    * durante largos períodos de tiempo = over long periods of time.
    * durante las horas de más calor = during the heat of the day.
    * durante las horas puntas = at peak periods.
    * durante la tira de tiempo = for donkey's years.
    * durante los dos últimos meses = over the last couple of months.
    * durante los primeros años = during the early years.
    * durante los próximos años = for the next few years, over the next few years, during the next few years.
    * durante los últimos años = over the past few years, over recent years.
    * durante los últimos + Expresión Temporal = over the past + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante los últimos + Número + años = over the last + Número + years.
    * durante meses y meses = for months on end.
    * durante miles de años = for aeons and aeons, for aeons.
    * durante millones de años = for aeons and aeons, for aeons.
    * durante muchas horas = for many long hours.
    * durante muchísimo tiempo = for ages and ages (and ages), in ages (and ages and ages).
    * durante muchos años = for many years, for years to come, for many years to come, over many years, for years and years (and years).
    * durante mucho tiempo = long [longer -comp., longest -sup.], for generations, long-time [longtime], for a long time to come, for long periods of time, for a long period of time, lastingly, for a very long time, for a very long time, for many long hours, for a long time, in ages (and ages and ages).
    * durante + Posesivo + madurez = in later life.
    * durante siglos = for aeons, for centuries, over the centuries.
    * durante tanto tiempo = for so long, so long.
    * durante tanto tiempo como sea posible = for as long as possible.
    * durante toda la noche = all-night, all night long.
    * durante toda la vida = lifelong [life-long].
    * durante toda una vida = over a lifetime.
    * durante todo = all the way through, throughout.
    * durante todo el día = all day long.
    * durante todo el trimestre = semester-long.
    * durante todo el verano = all summer long.
    * durante todo + Tiempo = all through + Tiempo.
    * durante un largo período de tiempo = over a long time scale, over a long period of time, for a long period of time, over a long period.
    * durante unos instantes = for a bit.
    * durante un período de + Expresión Temporal = over a period of + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante un período de prueba = on a trial basis.
    * durante un período de tiempo = for a number of years.
    * durante un periodo de tiempo determinado = over a period of time.
    * durante un período de tiempo indefinido = over an indefinite period of time, over an indefinite span of time.
    * durante un período indefinido = for an indefinite period.
    * durante un porrón de tiempo = for donkey's years.
    * durante un tiempo indefinido = for an indefinite time to come.
    * durante varios años = for a number of years, for several years.
    * esperado durante tiempo y con ansiedad = long-and-expectantly-awaited.
    * fue durante mucho tiempo = long remained.
    * observar atentamente y durante cierto tiempo = maintain + vigil.
    * trabajar durante un período de tiempo = serve + stint.
    * * *

    durante 1980 — during o in 1980

    los precios aumentaron un 0,3% durante el mes de diciembre — prices rose by 0.3% in December

    * * *
    = at the stage of, during, throughout.

    Ex: At the stage of subject analysis the indexer decides which, and there how many, concepts are selected for indexing purposes.

    Ex: This article singles out four trends which have influenced the work of UNESCO during the last decade.
    Ex: Throughout this chapter the term 'document' is used to refer to any item which might be found in a library or information center or data base.
    * aprendizaje durante toda la vida = lifelong education.
    * ausentarse durante + Expresión Temporal = not be back for + Expresión Temporal.
    * autoaprendizaje durante toda la vida = lifelong learning.
    * durante algunos años = for some years, over a period of years.
    * durante algún tiempo = for a while, for some time, for some while, for some time to come, for days.
    * durante años = for years.
    * durante años y años = for years and years (and years).
    * durante casi + Fecha = for the best part of + Fecha, for the better part of + Fecha.
    * durante casi todo el año = for the best part of the year.
    * durante cierto tiempo = over a period of time.
    * durante cuánto tiempo = how long.
    * durante demasiado tiempo = for too long.
    * durante días = for days.
    * durante días y días = for days on end.
    * durante el año pasado = over the past year.
    * durante el apogeo de = during the height of, during the heyday of.
    * durante el auge de = at the height of, during the height of, during the heyday of.
    * durante el descanso = at breaktime.
    * durante el día = by day, daytime [day-time], in the daytime, during the daytime, during daytime.
    * durante el entrenamiento = in practice.
    * durante el fin de semana = over the weekend.
    * durante el próximo año = over the next year.
    * durante el transcurso de = over the course of.
    * durante el transcurso de los acontecimientos = in the course of events, during the course of events.
    * durante el transcurso de muchos años = over many years.
    * durante el transporte = in transit.
    * durante el último año = over the last year.
    * durante el vuelo = in-flight.
    * durante este período = in the course of events, during the course of events.
    * durante este tiempo = in this time.
    * durante + Expresión Temporal = for + Expresión Temporal, over + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante + Expresión Temporal + y + Expresión Temporal = for + Expresión Temporal + on end.
    * durante generaciones = for generations.
    * durante la bajamar = at low tide.
    * durante la búsqueda = at the search stage.
    * durante la década de = through + Década.
    * durante la guerra = during wartime, wartime [wart-time], war years, the.
    * durante la mayor parte de = for much of.
    * durante la mayor parte del año = for the best part of the year.
    * durante la Navidad = at Christmas time.
    * durante la noche = overnight, night-time.
    * durante la Pascua = at Christmas time.
    * durante la pleamar = at high tide.
    * durante largos períodos de tiempo = over long periods of time.
    * durante las horas de más calor = during the heat of the day.
    * durante las horas puntas = at peak periods.
    * durante la tira de tiempo = for donkey's years.
    * durante los dos últimos meses = over the last couple of months.
    * durante los primeros años = during the early years.
    * durante los próximos años = for the next few years, over the next few years, during the next few years.
    * durante los últimos años = over the past few years, over recent years.
    * durante los últimos + Expresión Temporal = over the past + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante los últimos + Número + años = over the last + Número + years.
    * durante meses y meses = for months on end.
    * durante miles de años = for aeons and aeons, for aeons.
    * durante millones de años = for aeons and aeons, for aeons.
    * durante muchas horas = for many long hours.
    * durante muchísimo tiempo = for ages and ages (and ages), in ages (and ages and ages).
    * durante muchos años = for many years, for years to come, for many years to come, over many years, for years and years (and years).
    * durante mucho tiempo = long [longer -comp., longest -sup.], for generations, long-time [longtime], for a long time to come, for long periods of time, for a long period of time, lastingly, for a very long time, for a very long time, for many long hours, for a long time, in ages (and ages and ages).
    * durante + Posesivo + madurez = in later life.
    * durante siglos = for aeons, for centuries, over the centuries.
    * durante tanto tiempo = for so long, so long.
    * durante tanto tiempo como sea posible = for as long as possible.
    * durante toda la noche = all-night, all night long.
    * durante toda la vida = lifelong [life-long].
    * durante toda una vida = over a lifetime.
    * durante todo = all the way through, throughout.
    * durante todo el día = all day long.
    * durante todo el trimestre = semester-long.
    * durante todo el verano = all summer long.
    * durante todo + Tiempo = all through + Tiempo.
    * durante un largo período de tiempo = over a long time scale, over a long period of time, for a long period of time, over a long period.
    * durante unos instantes = for a bit.
    * durante un período de + Expresión Temporal = over a period of + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante un período de prueba = on a trial basis.
    * durante un período de tiempo = for a number of years.
    * durante un periodo de tiempo determinado = over a period of time.
    * durante un período de tiempo indefinido = over an indefinite period of time, over an indefinite span of time.
    * durante un período indefinido = for an indefinite period.
    * durante un porrón de tiempo = for donkey's years.
    * durante un tiempo indefinido = for an indefinite time to come.
    * durante varios años = for a number of years, for several years.
    * esperado durante tiempo y con ansiedad = long-and-expectantly-awaited.
    * fue durante mucho tiempo = long remained.
    * observar atentamente y durante cierto tiempo = maintain + vigil.
    * trabajar durante un período de tiempo = serve + stint.

    * * *
    durante mi ausencia/su reinado during my absence/his reign
    durante 1980 during o in 1980
    gobernó el país durante casi dos décadas she governed the country for almost two decades
    normalmente no salimos durante la semana we don't normally go out during the week
    trabajé en casa durante toda esa semana I worked at home all that week o for the whole of that week
    los precios aumentaron un 0,3% durante el mes de diciembre prices rose by 0.3% in December
    cuando estas drogas se toman durante un período largo when these drugs are taken over o for a long period
    su condición ha empeorado durante los últimos días his condition has worsened over the last few days
    durante estos días realiza una gira por Italia she is at present o currently on tour in Italy
    * * *

     

    durante preposición ( en el transcurso de) during;
    ( cuando se especifica la duración) for;
    ◊ durante 1980 during o in 1980;

    gobernó el país durante casi dos décadas she governed the country for almost two decades;
    los precios aumentaron un 0,3% durante el mes de diciembre prices rose by 0.3% in December;
    durante todo el invierno throughout the winter
    durante preposición during: caminamos durante dos horas, we walked for two hours
    hablaremos durante la cena, we'll talk over dinner
    se durmió durante la conferencia, she fell asleep during the lecture
    estuvo llorando durante toda la noche, she was crying all night long
    Recuerda que during se usa con el "nombre" de un período (la guerra, el concierto, el día) y responde a la pregunta ¿cuándo ocurrió? For expresa duración ( tres días, un par de segundos) y responde a la pregunta ¿cuánto tiempo duró?

    ' durante' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    amiga
    - amigo
    - arrojadiza
    - arrojadizo
    - cada
    - cañón
    - cesar
    - clásica
    - clásico
    - cola
    - como
    - contienda
    - continuismo
    - corrillo
    - desarrollo
    - desnaturalizar
    - día
    - empeorar
    - encierro
    - exilio
    - extracorpórea
    - extracorpóreo
    - filmación
    - herida
    - legislatura
    - mes
    - mientras
    - novelón
    - pajolera
    - pajolero
    - por
    - seguida
    - seguido
    - ver
    - adolescencia
    - bajada
    - callado
    - cartearse
    - cartelera
    - cierto
    - crecimiento
    - detenido
    - empatar
    - guardar
    - lactancia
    - meditar
    - reemplazar
    - reemplazo
    - zarandear
    English:
    all
    - allege
    - almost
    - antsy
    - appal
    - appall
    - assistant
    - badly
    - besiege
    - blackout
    - blow
    - canvasser
    - climate
    - collapse
    - composed
    - course
    - craving
    - crib
    - deliberate
    - detention
    - diving
    - during
    - ensue
    - ferment
    - flatten
    - fluster
    - fold
    - for
    - forceps
    - go on
    - go-between
    - guffaw
    - haggle
    - hold against
    - homesick
    - hooligan
    - hound
    - in
    - in-flight
    - injure
    - intermission
    - intermittent
    - interrogate
    - keep in
    - major
    - monstrosity
    - neutrality
    - observation
    - outage
    - over
    * * *
    durante prep
    [en todo el tiempo de] for; [mientras] during;
    estuvo sin beber durante un año he went (for) a year without drinking;
    durante una hora for an hour;
    durante todo el mes de febrero for the whole of February, throughout the month of February;
    durante las vacaciones during the Br holidays o US vacation;
    llovió varias veces durante la semana it rained several times during the week;
    por favor, desconecten sus teléfonos móviles durante la proyección please ensure cellphones o Br mobile phones are switched off during the movie;
    durante un año se produjeron tres seísmos en la zona there were three earthquakes in the area in the space of a year;
    durante su estancia en Londres visitó varios museos he visited several museums while he was in London;
    durante el verano mejoró su situación económica his financial situation improved over the summer;
    llovió durante toda la semana it rained all week;
    * * *
    durante seis meses for six months
    * * *
    durante prep
    : during
    durante todo el día: all day long
    trabajó durante tres horas: he worked for three hours
    * * *
    durante prep
    1. during
    2. for

    Spanish-English dictionary > durante

  • 6 abarcar

    v.
    1 to embrace, to cover.
    2 to be able to see, to have a view of.
    desde la torre se abarca todo el valle you can see the whole valley from the tower
    3 to span, to extend through, to extend over, to extend across.
    El viaje abarca la región sur The trip extends throughout the south.
    4 to comprise, to encompass, to comprehend, to embrace.
    El estudio abarca la era glacial The research comprises the glacial era.
    5 to dominate.
    6 to monopolize.
    EXEX abarcó el mercado textil EXEX monopolized the textile market sector.
    * * *
    Conjugation model [ SACAR], like link=sacar sacar
    1 (englobar) to cover, embrace
    2 (abrazar) to embrace, get one's arms around
    3 (trabajo) to undertake, take on
    \
    quien mucho abarca poco aprieta Jack of all trades, master of none
    * * *
    verb
    * * *
    VT
    1) [con los brazos] to get one's arms round
    2) (=comprender) to include, take in; (=contener) to contain, comprise

    sus conocimientos abarcan todo el campo de... — his knowledge ranges over the whole field of...

    abarca una hectárea — it takes up a hectare, it's a hectare in size

    3) [+ tarea] to undertake, take on
    4) LAm (=acaparar) to monopolize, corner the market in
    5) [con la vista] to take in
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    a) <temas/materias> to cover; <superficie/territorio> to span, cover; <siglos/generaciones> to span

    el libro abarca desde el siglo XVII hasta nuestros días — the book covers o spans from the 17th century to the present day

    b) ( dar abasto con) <trabajos/actividades> to cope with
    c) (con los brazos, la mano) to encircle
    * * *
    = comprise (of), cover, encompass, include, span, embrace.
    Ex. The first edition comprised basic classes analysed into facets, using the colon as the notational device for synthesis.
    Ex. The schedules are divided into two parts, one covering music scores and parts and the other concerned with music literature.
    Ex. The classification schemes that have been considered so far are general bibliographic classification schemes in that they attempt to encompass all of knowledge.
    Ex. Document descriptions may be included in catalogues, bibliographies and other listings of documents.
    Ex. The shelflist itself had problems, since it consisted of cataloging practices that spanned some fifty years.
    Ex. The library community is now ready to embrace the most revolutionary technology for libraries -- CD-ROM.
    ----
    * abarcar de... a... = range from... to..., stretch from... to....
    * abarcar el mundo = span + the globe.
    * abarcarlo todo = be all inclusive.
    * abarcar todas las posibilidades = run + the gamut.
    * curso que abarca varias disciplinas = umbrella course.
    * el que mucho abarca poco aprieta = jack of all trades, master of none.
    * intentar abarcar demasiado = burn + the candle at both ends.
    * que abarca = girdling.
    * que lo abarca todo = all-embracing.
    * quien mucho abarca poco aprieta = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.
    * sujetar abarcando = brace.
    * tratar de abarcar más de lo que se puede = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.
    * * *
    verbo transitivo
    a) <temas/materias> to cover; <superficie/territorio> to span, cover; <siglos/generaciones> to span

    el libro abarca desde el siglo XVII hasta nuestros días — the book covers o spans from the 17th century to the present day

    b) ( dar abasto con) <trabajos/actividades> to cope with
    c) (con los brazos, la mano) to encircle
    * * *
    = comprise (of), cover, encompass, include, span, embrace.

    Ex: The first edition comprised basic classes analysed into facets, using the colon as the notational device for synthesis.

    Ex: The schedules are divided into two parts, one covering music scores and parts and the other concerned with music literature.
    Ex: The classification schemes that have been considered so far are general bibliographic classification schemes in that they attempt to encompass all of knowledge.
    Ex: Document descriptions may be included in catalogues, bibliographies and other listings of documents.
    Ex: The shelflist itself had problems, since it consisted of cataloging practices that spanned some fifty years.
    Ex: The library community is now ready to embrace the most revolutionary technology for libraries -- CD-ROM.
    * abarcar de... a... = range from... to..., stretch from... to....
    * abarcar el mundo = span + the globe.
    * abarcarlo todo = be all inclusive.
    * abarcar todas las posibilidades = run + the gamut.
    * curso que abarca varias disciplinas = umbrella course.
    * el que mucho abarca poco aprieta = jack of all trades, master of none.
    * intentar abarcar demasiado = burn + the candle at both ends.
    * que abarca = girdling.
    * que lo abarca todo = all-embracing.
    * quien mucho abarca poco aprieta = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.
    * sujetar abarcando = brace.
    * tratar de abarcar más de lo que se puede = bite off more than + Pronombre + can chew.

    * * *
    abarcar [A2 ]
    vt
    1 ‹temas/materias› to cover
    el programa abarca desde la Reconquista hasta el siglo XIX the program takes in o covers o spans the period from the Reconquest to the 19th century
    sus tierras abarcan desde el río hasta la sierra his land stretches o extends from the river up to the mountains
    abarcaba todo el territorio que ahora se conoce como Uruguay it extended over o embraced o spanned o included all the territory now known as Uruguay
    2 (dar abasto con) ‹trabajos/actividades› to cope with
    se ha echado encima más de lo que puede abarcar he's bitten off more than he can chew, he's taken on more than he can cope with
    quien mucho abarca poco aprieta don't try to take on too much ( o you've/he's taken on too much etc)
    3 (con los brazos) to embrace, encircle
    no le abarco la muñeca con la mano I can't get my hand around his wrist
    4 (con la mirada) to take in
    * * *

     

    abarcar ( conjugate abarcar) verbo transitivo
    a) ‹temas/materias› to cover;

    ‹superficie/territorio› span, cover;
    ‹siglos/generaciones› to span;

    b) ( dar abasto con) ‹trabajos/actividades› to cope with;

    ◊ quien mucho abarca poco aprieta you shouldn't bite off more than you can chew

    c) (con los brazos, la mano) to encircle

    abarcar verbo transitivo
    1 to cover
    (asuntos, trabajo) no puedes abarcarlo todo, you can't take on too much
    2 (con los brazos) to embrace
    3 (dominar) su finca es tan grande que no se puede abarcar con la vista, she owns so much land that you can't contemplate it all from one angle
    4 LAm (acaparar) to monopolize
    ' abarcar' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    comprender
    - ir
    - dominar
    English:
    bite
    - candle
    - chew
    - cover
    - embody
    - embrace
    - span
    - take in
    - encompass
    - take
    * * *
    1. [incluir] to cover;
    nuestra hacienda abarca un tercio de la comarca our estate covers a third of the district;
    este artículo intenta abarcar demasiado this article tries to cover too much;
    el libro abarca cinco siglos de historia de Latinoamérica the book covers o spans five centuries of Latin American history;
    quien mucho abarca poco aprieta don't bite off more than you can chew
    2. [ver] to be able to see, to have a view of;
    desde la torre se abarca todo el valle you can see the whole valley from the tower;
    hasta donde abarca la vista as far as the eye can see
    3. [rodear]
    no consigo abarcar el tronco con los brazos I can't get my arms around the tree trunk
    * * *
    v/t
    1 territorio cover; fig
    comprise, cover
    2 L.Am. ( acaparar) hoard, stockpile
    3
    :
    * * *
    abarcar {72} vt
    1) : to cover, to include, to embrace
    2) : to undertake
    3) : to monopolize
    * * *
    1. (contener, incluir) to cover / to include
    2. (alcanzar con la vista) to see [pt. saw; pp. seen]
    3. (ocuparse de) to take on [pt. took; pp. taken]

    Spanish-English dictionary > abarcar

  • 7 over

    over ['əʊvə(r)]
    au-dessus de ⇒ 1A (a) sur ⇒ 1A (b), 1B (a), 1B (b) par-dessus ⇒ 1A (b), 1A (c) plus de ⇒ 1C (a) au sujet de ⇒ 1D (a) plus ⇒ 2B (b) encore ⇒ 2B (d) fini ⇒ 3
    A.
    (a) (above) au-dessus de;
    ∎ a bullet whistled over my head une balle siffla au-dessus de ma tête;
    ∎ they live over the shop ils habitent au-dessus du magasin;
    ∎ the plane came down over France l'avion s'est écrasé en France
    (b) (on top of, covering) sur, par-dessus;
    ∎ put a lace cloth over the table mets une nappe en dentelle sur la table;
    ∎ she wore a cardigan over her dress elle portait un gilet par-dessus sa robe;
    ∎ she wore a black dress with a red cardigan over it elle avait une robe noire avec un gilet rouge par-dessus;
    ∎ I put my hand over my mouth j'ai mis ma main devant ma bouche;
    ∎ he had his jacket over his arm il avait sa veste sur le bras;
    ∎ with his hat over his eyes le chapeau enfoncé jusqu'aux yeux;
    ∎ we painted over the wallpaper nous avons peint par-dessus la tapisserie;
    ∎ she was hunched over the wheel elle était penchée sur la roue
    ∎ he was watching me over his newspaper il m'observait par-dessus son journal;
    ∎ I peered over the edge j'ai jeté un coup d'œil par-dessus le rebord;
    ∎ he fell/jumped over the cliff il est tombé/a sauté du haut de la falaise
    ∎ to cross over the road traverser la rue;
    ∎ they live over the road from me ils habitent en face de chez moi;
    ∎ there's a fine view over the valley on a une belle vue sur la vallée;
    ∎ the bridge over the river le pont qui enjambe la rivière;
    ∎ he ran his eye over the article il a parcouru l'article des yeux;
    ∎ she ran her hand over the smooth marble elle passa la main sur le marbre lisse;
    ∎ we travelled for days over land and sea nous avons voyagé pendant des jours par terre et par mer;
    ∎ a strange look came over her face son visage prit une expression étrange
    ∎ the village over the hill le village de l'autre côté de la colline;
    ∎ they must be over the border by now ils doivent avoir passé la frontière maintenant
    B.
    ∎ to rule over a country régner sur un pays;
    ∎ I have no control/influence over them je n'ai aucune autorité/influence sur eux;
    ∎ she has some kind of hold over him elle a une certaine emprise sur lui;
    ∎ she watched over her children elle surveillait ses enfants
    (b) (indicating position of superiority, importance) sur;
    ∎ a victory over the forces of reaction une victoire sur les forces réactionnaires;
    ∎ our project takes priority over the others notre projet a priorité sur les autres
    C.
    (a) (with specific figure or amount → more than) plus de;
    ∎ it took me well/just over an hour j'ai mis bien plus/un peu plus d'une heure;
    ∎ he must be over thirty il doit avoir plus de trente ans;
    ∎ children over (the age of) 7 les enfants (âgés) de plus de 7 ans;
    ∎ think of a number over 100 pensez à un chiffre supérieur à 100;
    ∎ not over 250 grams (in post office) jusqu'à 250 grammes
    ∎ his voice rang out over the others sa voix dominait toutes les autres;
    ∎ I couldn't hear what she was saying over the music la musique m'empêchait d'entendre ce qu'elle disait
    ∎ eight over two huit divisé par deux
    ∎ I've got a job over the long vacation je vais travailler pendant les grandes vacances;
    ∎ I'll do it over the weekend je le ferai pendant le week-end;
    ∎ what are you doing over Easter? qu'est-ce que tu fais pour Pâques?;
    ∎ it's improved over the years ça s'est amélioré au cours ou au fil des années;
    ∎ over the next few decades au cours des prochaines décennies;
    ∎ over a period of several weeks pendant plusieurs semaines;
    ∎ we discussed it over a drink/over lunch/over a game of golf nous en avons discuté autour d'un verre/pendant le déjeuner/en faisant une partie de golf
    D.
    (a) (concerning) au sujet de;
    ∎ a disagreement over working conditions un conflit portant sur les conditions de travail;
    ∎ they're always quarrelling over money ils se disputent sans cesse pour des questions d'argent;
    ∎ to laugh over sth rire (à propos) de qch;
    ∎ there's a big question mark over his future nous n'avons aucune idée de ce qu'il va devenir
    (b) (by means of, via)
    ∎ they were talking over the telephone ils parlaient au téléphone;
    ∎ I heard it over the radio je l'ai entendu à la radio
    ∎ are you over your bout of flu? est-ce que tu es guéri ou est-ce que tu t'es remis de ta grippe?;
    ∎ he's over the shock now il s'en est remis maintenant;
    ∎ we'll soon be over the worst le plus dur sera bientôt passé;
    ∎ it took her a long time to get over his death elle a mis longtemps à se remettre de sa mort;
    ∎ don't worry, you'll be or get over her soon ne t'en fais pas, bientôt tu n'y penseras plus
    A.
    (a) (indicating movement or location, across distance or space)
    ∎ an eagle flew over un aigle passa au-dessus de nous;
    ∎ she walked over to him and said hello elle s'approcha de lui pour dire bonjour;
    ∎ he led me over to the window il m'a conduit à la fenêtre;
    ∎ he must have seen us, he's coming over il a dû nous voir, il vient vers nous ou de notre côté;
    ∎ pass my cup over, will you tu peux me passer ma tasse?;
    ∎ throw it over! (over the wall etc) lance-le par-dessus!; (throw it to me) lance-le moi!;
    ∎ she glanced over at me elle jeta un coup d'œil dans ma direction;
    ∎ she leaned over to whisper to him elle se pencha pour lui chuchoter quelque chose à l'oreille;
    ∎ over in the States aux États-Unis;
    ∎ over there là-bas;
    ∎ come over here! viens (par) ici!;
    ∎ has Colin been over? est-ce que Colin est passé?;
    ∎ she drove over to meet us elle est venue nous rejoindre en voiture;
    ∎ let's have or invite them over for dinner si on les invitait à dîner?;
    ∎ we have guests over from Morocco nous avons des invités qui viennent du Maroc
    ∎ she's travelled the whole world over elle a voyagé dans le monde entier;
    ∎ people the world over are watching the broadcast live des téléspectateurs du monde entier assistent à cette retransmission en direct
    ∎ I fell over je suis tombé (par terre);
    ∎ she knocked her glass over elle a renversé son verre;
    ∎ he flipped the pancake over il a retourné la crêpe;
    ∎ American familiar over easy (egg) cuit sur les deux côtés;
    ∎ they rolled over and over in the grass ils se roulaient dans l'herbe;
    ∎ and over I went et me voilà par terre
    ∎ we just whitewashed it over nous l'avons simplement passé à la chaux;
    ∎ the bodies were covered over with blankets les corps étaient recouverts avec des couvertures
    (e) (into the hands of another person, group etc)
    ∎ he's gone over to the other side/to the opposition il est passé de l'autre côté/dans l'opposition;
    ∎ they handed him over to the authorities ils l'ont remis aux autorités ou entre les mains des autorités;
    ∎ Radio & Television and now over to Kirsty Jones in Paris nous passons maintenant l'antenne à Kirsty Jones à Paris;
    ∎ over to you (it's your turn) c'est votre tour, c'est à vous;
    ∎ Telecommunications over (to you)! à vous!;
    ∎ over and out! terminé!
    B.
    (a) (left, remaining)
    ∎ there were/I had a few pounds (left) over il restait/il me restait quelques livres;
    ∎ you will keep what is (left) over vous garderez l'excédent ou le surplus;
    ∎ seven into fifty-two makes seven with three over cinquante-deux divisé par sept égale sept, il reste trois
    (b) (with specific figure or amount → more) plus;
    ∎ men of 30 and over les hommes âgés de 30 ans et plus;
    ∎ articles costing £100 or over les articles de 100 livres et plus
    ∎ read it over carefully lisez-le attentivement;
    ∎ do you want to talk the matter over? voulez-vous en discuter?
    (d) (again, more than once) encore;
    ∎ American I had to do the whole thing over j'ai dû tout refaire;
    ∎ she won the tournament five times over elle a gagné le tournoi à cinq reprises
    fini;
    ∎ the party's over la fête est finie;
    ∎ the danger is over le danger est passé;
    ∎ the war was just over la guerre venait de finir ou de s'achever;
    ∎ I'm glad that's over (with)! je suis bien content que ça soit fini!;
    ∎ that's over and done with voilà qui est fini et bien fini
    4 noun
    (in cricket) série f de six balles
    Typography (extra paper) main f de passe, simple passe f; (extra books) exemplaires mpl de passe
    en plus de;
    ∎ over and above what we've already paid en plus de ce que nous avons déjà payé;
    ∎ and over and above that, he was banned from driving for life en plus, on lui a retiré son permis (de conduire) à vie
    ∎ I've told you over and over (again) je te l'ai répété je ne sais combien de fois;
    ∎ he did it over and over (again) until… il a recommencé des dizaines de fois jusqu'à ce que…
    ⓘ They think it's all over (...it is now) Ces mots, précédés de la phrase some people are on the pitch... ("il y a quelques personnes sur le terrain"), furent prononcés par Kenneth Wolstenholme, commentateur sportif de la BBC, au moment où Geoff Hurst marqua un dernier but pour l'Angleterre dans les dernières secondes de la finale de la Coupe du monde de football de 1966, qui vit l'Angleterre l'emporter face à la République fédérale d'Allemagne. Aujourd'hui on utilise cette expression ("ils croient que c'est terminé,... maintenant, c'est terminé") en anglais britannique lorsque quelqu'un s'imagine à tort qu'une chose est terminée, ou bien au moment même où cette chose s'achève.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > over

  • 8 Foreign policy

       The guiding principle of Portuguese foreign policy since the founding of the monarchy in the 12th century has been the maintenance of Portugal's status first as an independent kingdom and, later, as a sovereign nation-state. For the first 800 years of its existence, Portuguese foreign policy and diplomacy sought to maintain the independence of the Portuguese monarchy, especially in relationship to the larger and more powerful Spanish monarchy. During this period, the Anglo- Portuguese Alliance, which began with a treaty of commerce and friendship signed between the kings of Portugal and England in 1386 (the Treaty of Windsor) and continued with the Methuen Treaty in 1703, sought to use England ( Great Britain after 1707) as a counterweight to its landward neighbor, Spain.
       As three invasions of Portugal by Napoleon's armies during the first decade of the 19th century proved, however, Spain was not the only threat to Portugal's independence and security. Portugal's ally, Britain, provided a counterweight also to a threatening France on more than one occasion between 1790 and 1830. During the 19th century, Portugal's foreign policy became largely subordinate to that of her oldest ally, Britain, and standard Portuguese histories describe Portugal's situation as that of a "protectorate" of Britain. In two key aspects during this time of international weakness and internal turmoil, Portugal's foreign policy was under great pressure from her ally, world power Britain: responses to European conflicts and to the situation of Portugal's scattered, largely impoverished overseas empire. Portugal's efforts to retain massive, resource-rich Brazil in her empire failed by 1822, when Brazil declared its independence. Britain's policy of favoring greater trade and commerce opportunities in an autonomous Brazil was at odds with Portugal's desperate efforts to hold Brazil.
       Following the loss of Brazil and a renewed interest in empire in tropical Africa, Portugal sought to regain a more independent initiative in her foreign policy and, especially after 1875, overseas imperial questions dominated foreign policy concerns. From this juncture, through the first Republic (1910-26) and during the Estado Novo, a primary purpose of Portuguese foreign policy was to maintain Portuguese India, Macau, and its colonies in Africa: Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea- Bissau. Under the direction of the dictator, Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, further efforts were made to reclaim a measure of independence of foreign policy, despite the tradition of British dominance. Salazar recognized the importance of an Atlantic orientation of the country's foreign policy. As Herbert Pell, U.S. Ambassador to Portugal (1937-41), observed in a June 1939 report to the U.S. Department of State, Portugal's leaders understood that Portugal must side with "that nation which dominates the Atlantic."
       During the 1930s, greater efforts were made in Lisbon in economic, financial, and foreign policy initiatives to assert a greater measure of flexibility in her dependence on ally Britain. German economic interests made inroads in an economy whose infrastructure in transportation, communication, and commerce had long been dominated by British commerce and investors. Portugal's foreign policy during World War II was challenged as both Allied and Axis powers tested the viability of Portugal's official policy of neutrality, qualified by a customary bow to the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Antônio de Oliveira Salazar, who served as minister of foreign affairs, as well as prime minister, during 1936-45, sought to sell his version of neutrality to both sides in the war and to do so in a way that would benefit Portugal's still weak economy and finance. Portugal's status as a neutral was keenly tested in several cases, including Portugal's agreeing to lease military bases to Britain and the United States in the Azores Islands and in the wolfram (tungsten ore) question. Portugal's foreign policy experienced severe pressures from the Allies in both cases, and Salazar made it clear to his British and American counterparts that Portugal sought to claim the right to make independent choices in policy, despite Portugal's military and economic weakness. In tense diplomatic negotiations with the Allies over Portugal's wolfram exports to Germany as of 1944, Salazar grew disheartened and briefly considered resigning over the wolfram question. Foreign policy pressure on this question diminished quickly on 6 June 1944, as Salazar decreed that wolfram mining, sales, and exports to both sides would cease for the remainder of the war. After the United States joined the Allies in the war and pursued an Atlantic strategy, Portugal discovered that her relationship with the dominant ally in the emerging United Nations was changing and that the U.S. would replace Britain as the key Atlantic ally during succeeding decades. Beginning in 1943-44, and continuing to 1949, when Portugal became, with the United States, a founding member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), Luso-American relations assumed center stage in her foreign policy.
       During the Cold War, Portuguese foreign policy was aligned with that of the United States and its allies in Western Europe. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the focus of Portuguese foreign policy shifted away from defending and maintaining the African colonies toward integration with Europe. Since Portugal became a member of the European Economic Community in 1986, and this evolved into the European Union (EU), all Portuguese governments have sought to align Portugal's foreign policy with that of the EU in general and to be more independent of the United States. Since 1986, Portugal's bilateral commercial and diplomatic relations with Britain, France, and Spain have strengthened, especially those with Spain, which are more open and mutually beneficial than at any other time in history.
       Within the EU, Portugal has sought to play a role in the promotion of democracy and human rights, while maintaining its security ties to NATO. Currently, a Portuguese politician, José Manuel Durão Barroso, is president of the Commission of the EU, and Portugal has held the six-month rotating presidency of the EU three times, in 1992, 2000, and 2007.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Foreign policy

  • 9 исследование

    investigation, research, study, analysis, discussion, tracing, examination, work, treatment
    • Большая часть исследования была сконцентрирована на поиске... - Much research has been concentrated on the search for...
    • В своем классическом исследовании Смит [1] установил, что... - In a classical investigation, Smith [1] established that...
    • Важно, что исследование также показывает, что... - Importantly, the study also shows that...
    • Вместо того, чтобы пытаться сделать общее исследование задачи, мы... - Rather than attempt a general investigation of the problem, we...
    • Все эти исследования основываются на одном и том же предположении. - All these studies rest on the same assumption.
    • Дальнейшее исследование, однако, показало, что... - Further investigation, however, has shown that...
    • Данная идея получила свое начало при исследовании... - The idea originated with the study of...
    • Для данного исследования мы возьмем... - For the present investigation we shall take...
    • Для данного исследования необходимо... - For this treatment it is necessary to...
    • До сих пор мы ограничивали наше исследование (чем-л). - So far we have confined our attention to...
    • До сих пор наше исследование было посвящено ( чему-л). - Our treatment has so far been confined to...
    • Долговременные исследования показали, что... - Long-term studies have shown that...
    • Другие исследования также указали, что... - Other studies have also indicated that...
    • Другое исследование показало, что... - Another study showed that...
    • Закончим наше исследование объяснением (чего-л). - We conclude our treatment with an explanation of...
    • Из этого исследования вытекает, что... - From this investigation it appears that...
    • Исследование... имеет долгую и интересную историю. - The study of... has a long and interesting history.
    • Исследование Смита [1] также свидетельствует о... - The research of Smith jlj also gives evidence of...
    • Исследование каждого случая отдельно приводит к... - Examination of each individual case leads to...
    • Исследование охватывает некоторые вопросы механики... - Investigation covers the fields of mechanics...
    • Исследование уравнения (4) показывает, что... - An examination of (4) shows that...
    • Исследование, продолжающееся два десятилетия, принесло удивительно немного результатов относительно... - Research spanning two decades has yielded surprisingly few results on...
    • Исследования... выявили, что... - Studies of... have revealed that...
    • Исследования показали важность... - The studies demonstrated the importance of...
    • Кажется, было относительно немного исследований... - There seem to have been relatively few investigations of...
    • Многочисленные исторические исследования показали, как... - Numerous historical analyses have shown how...
    • Могло бы показаться естественным начать наше исследование с... - It might seem natural to start our investigation with...
    • Мы использовали это в качестве отправного пункта нашего исследования. - We have taken this as a starting point for our investigation.
    • Мы ограничим наше исследование (проблемой и т. п.)... - We shall confine the investigation to...
    • Мы ограничим наше исследование (случаем и т. п.)... - We limit our study to...
    • Мы сейчас проведем более систематическое исследование... - We shall now make a more systematic study of...
    • Мы увидим, что данное исследование применимо также в случае... - It will be observed that this investigation applies also to the case of...
    • В действительности его исследование, похоже, показывает, что... - Actually his investigation seemed to show that...
    • Несколько исследований указывают, что... - Several studies indicate that...
    • Объектом исследования является... - The investigation is concerned with...
    • Однако имеются более ранние исследования, в которых... - However, there are more recent studies in which...
    • Однако легко обобщить это исследование на случай, когда... - It is easy, however, to generalize this treatment to the case of...
    • Однако наше исследование составляет лишь малую часть... - However, our study comprises only a small portion of...
    • Однако тщательное исследование показывает, что... - Careful study shows, however, that...
    • Описанные здесь исследования показывают, что... - The studies described here show that...
    • Повсюду в этом исследовании будет сделан акцент... - Throughout this treatment an effort will be made to...
    • Подробные исследования выявили, что... - Detailed studies have revealed that...
    • Продвижение в исследовании было тесно связано с... - The progress of research has been intimately connected with...
    • Чтобы предпринять подобное исследование, мы... - То undertake such a study we...
    • Чтобы упростить исследование, мы теперь введем... - То simplify the treatment we shall now introduce...
    • Эти задачи поддаются исследованию (с помощью)... - These problems are amenable to treatment by...
    • Это гипотеза, заслуживающая дальнейшего исследования. - This is a hypothesis worthy of further investigation.
    • Это исследование упрощается, если воспользоваться... - This study is facilitated by the use of...
    • Это предлагает широкое поле для исследований. - This offers a wide field for research.

    Русско-английский словарь научного общения > исследование

  • 10 haber

    m.
    1 assets (bienes).
    2 credit (side).
    v.
    1 to have.
    lo he/había hecho I have/had done it
    los niños ya han comido the children have already eaten
    2 to be, to exist, to be some.
    Hay carros There are cars.
    Hay There are
    * * *
    Present Indicative
    he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han.
    Imperfect Subjunctive
    había, habías, había, habíamos, habíais, habían.
    Past Indicative
    Future Indicative
    Conditional
    Present Subjunctive
    Imperfect Subjunctive
    Future Subjunctive
    Imperative
    he (tú), haya (él/Vd.), hayamos (nos.), habed (vos.), hayan (ellos/Vds.).
    * * *
    verb
    - hay
    * * *
    1. V AUX
    1) [en tiempos compuestos] to have

    he comido — I have o I've eaten

    había ido al cine — he had gone o he'd gone to the cinema

    ¡haberlo dicho! — you should have said!

    ¡hubieran visto la casa! — esp LAm * you should have seen the house!

    pero, ¿habráse visto (cosa igual)? — well, have you ever seen anything like it?

    de haberlo sabido — if I had known, if I'd known

    2)

    • haber de —

    a) [indicando obligación]

    he de hacerlo — I have to do it, I must do it

    has de saber que... — you should know that...

    ¿qué he de hacer? — what am I to do?

    los has de ver — LAm you'll see them

    b) [indicando suposición]

    ha de llegar hoy — esp LAm he should get here today

    has de estar equivocado — esp LAm you must be mistaken

    2. V IMPERS
    1)

    hay — [con sustantivo en singular] there is; [con sustantivo en plural] there are

    ¿habrá tiempo? — will there be time?

    lo que hay es que... — it's like this..., the thing is...

    hay sol — the sun is shining, it's sunny

    habían muchas personas — LAm there were many people there

    • ¿ cuánto hay de aquí a Cuzco? — how far is it from here to Cuzco?

    • los hay excelentes — some are excellent

    oportunistas los hay en todas partes — you'll find opportunists everywhere, there are always opportunists, wherever you go

    • no hay, no hay nada mejor que... — there's nothing better than...

    no hay más que hablar — there's no more to be said, there's nothing more to say

    ¡aquí no hay quien duerma! — it's impossible to get any sleep round here!

    ¡no hay de qué! — don't mention it!, not at all!

    • ¿ qué hay? — (=¿qué pasa?) what's up?; (=¿qué tal?) how's it going?, how are things?

    ¡qué hubo! — Chile, Méx, Ven * how's it going?, how are things?

    como hay pocos, donde los haya —

    un amigo como hay pocos o donde los haya — a friend in a million

    de lo que no hay —

    ¡eres de lo que no hay! — you're unbelievable!

    si los hay —

    2) (Com)

    "¡mejores no hay!" — "there's none better!"

    ¡hay helado! — [dicho a voces] ice cream!; [en cartel] ice cream sold

    ¿hay puros? — do you have any cigars?

    "no hay entradas o localidades" — "sold out"

    3)

    • hay que, hay que trabajar — one has to work, everyone must work

    hay que trabajar más — [como mandato] you must work harder

    no hay que olvidar que... — we mustn't forget that...

    no hay que tomarlo a mal — there's no reason to take it badly, you mustn't get upset about it

    ¡había que decírselo! — we'll have to tell him!

    ¡había que verlo! — you should have seen it!

    • no hay más que, no hay más que leer las normas — all you have to do is read the rules

    4) [indicando tiempo]

    tres años ha — frm three years ago

    años ha que no les veo — frm, hum I haven't seen them for years

    3. VT
    1) (=ocurrir)

    habidos y por haber —

    2) (=tener)

    Pepe, que Dios haya en su gloria — Pepe, God rest his soul

    bien haya... — (Rel) blessed be...

    3) liter (=obtener)
    4.
    See:
    * * *
    I 1.
    verbo auxiliar
    1) ( en tiempos compuestos) to have

    no han/habían llegado — they haven't/hadn't arrived

    como se haya olvidado lo mato — if he's forgotten, I'll kill him!

    ¿se habrán perdido? — do you think they've o they might have got lost?

    de haberlo sabido — had I known, if I'd known

    2)
    a) (frml) (expresando obligación, necesidad)

    haber de + inf — to have to + inf

    ha de ser firmado por ambas partes — it has to o must be signed by both parties

    ha de llegar un día en que... — the day will come when...

    c) (expresando probabilidad, certeza)

    pero ¿sabes lo que dices? - no lo he de saber! — but do you know what you're saying? - of course I do!

    2.
    haber v impers
    1) (existir, estar, darse)

    hay una carta/varias cartas para ti — there's a letter/there are several letters for you

    ¿qué tomarán de postre? - ¿hay helado? — what would you like for dessert? - do you have any ice cream?

    ¿cuántos kilómetros hay hasta Sevilla? — how many kilometers are there o is it to Seville?

    hay quien piensa que... — there are those who feel that...

    gracias - no hay de qué — thank you - don't mention it o not at all o you're welcome

    hola ¿qué hay/hay de nuevo? — (fam) hello, how are things/what's new?

    es un poco largo - ¿qué hay? — (CS fam) it's rather long - so what?

    ¿qué hubo? — (Andes, Méx, Ven fam) how are things?

    ¿qué hubo de lo de Jorge y Ana? — what happened with Jorge and Ana?

    habérselas con alguien: tendrá que habérselas conmigo he'll have me to deal with; habido y por haber: todos los trucos habidos y por haber — every trick in the book (colloq)

    haber que + inf: hay que estudiar you/we/they must study; hubo que romperlo we/they had to break it; hay que decir algo something has to be said; había que verlo! you should have seen him!; no hay más que apretarlo all you have to do is press it; no hay que darle muy fuerte — ( no es necesario) you don't need o have to hit it too hard; ( no se debe) you mustn't hit it too hard

    muchos años/mucho tiempo ha — many years/a long time ago

    3.
    haber vt habido -da participio pasado (frml) ( tenido)

    los hijos habidos en el/fuera del matrimonio — children born in/out of wedlock (frml)

    II
    a) ( bienes) assets (pl)
    b) ( en contabilidad) credit side

    tener algo en su haber — (period) to have something to one's credit

    c) haberes masculino plural (frml) (emolumentos, paga) income, earnings (pl)

    los haberes que se le adeudan — moneys o monies owed to you (frml)

    * * *
    = be available, come in, there + be, there + have + been, be in place, accounts receivable.
    Ex. This emphasis upon 'the work' reflects the packaging of text, information, music, graphics, and so on, and indicates to the subsequent user what packages are available for use or consultation.
    Ex. Such records come in a variety of physical forms.
    Ex. There are a relatively large number of documents under each heading.
    Ex. Mr. Kilgour's publications are truly too voluminous to list; over a period of four decades, there have been few years in which he has not published.
    Ex. Modular courses are already in place from which a student can pick and mix.
    Ex. This software includes separate programs for general ledger: accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll and inventory.
    ----
    * deber haber ocurrido antes = be long overdue.
    * debería haber = there + ought to be.
    * en el haber de Uno = under + Posesivo + belt.
    * en + Posesivo + haber = to + Posesivo + credit.
    * en su haber = on the credit side.
    * haber algo raro con = there + be + something fishy going on with.
    * haber algo sospechoso con = there + be + something fishy going on with.
    * haber bebido demasiado = be over the limit.
    * haber decidido = be intent on.
    * haber de muchos tipos = come in + all/many (sorts of) shapes and sizes.
    * haber de muy diversos tipos = come in + all/many (sorts of) shapes and sizes.
    * haber dinero de por medio = money + change hands.
    * haber división de opiniones = be split on, opinion + be divided.
    * haber división de opiniones entre los críticos = critics + be divided.
    * haberes = assets, holdings.
    * haber escasez de = be in short supply, be at a premium.
    * haber existencias = be in stock.
    * haber ganado la mitad de la batalla = be half the battle.
    * haber ganado sólo la mitad de la batalla = be only half the battle.
    * haber llegado = be upon us.
    * haber muchísima diferencia = be in a different league.
    * haber nacido en = be a native of.
    * haber pasado por aquí antes = have been down this road before.
    * haber poca duda de que = there + be + little doubt that.
    * haber + que reconocer que = have to hand it to + Nombre.
    * haber quórum = be quorate.
    * haber recorrido mucho mundo = be well-travelled.
    * haberse propuesto = be intent on.
    * haber sido aceptado = be here to stay, have come + to stay.
    * haber sido comprobado exhaustivamente = be thoroughly tested.
    * haber terminado la jornada laboral = be off duty.
    * haber todavía más = there + be + more to it than that.
    * haber un aire de emoción = there + be + an air of excitement.
    * haber un aire de expectación = there + be + an air of expectation.
    * haber una transacción económica de por medio = money + change hands.
    * haber un viento huracanado = wind + blow great guns.
    * haber viajado mucho = be well-travelled.
    * ha de ser + Participio = be to be + Participio.
    * hubo una época en la que = there was a time when.
    * lo que haya que de ser, será = que sera sera, what's meant to be, will be, whatever will be, will be.
    * mientras haya existencias = while stocks last, subject to availability.
    * no haber = be unavailable.
    * no haber consecuencias = nothing + come of.
    * no + haber + dos + Nombre que = no two + Nombre.
    * no haber duda de que = there + be + no doubt that.
    * no haber duda (que) = there + be + no question (that).
    * no haber forma de = there + be + no way.
    * no haber indicios de que = there + be + no indication that.
    * no haber límites = there + be + no limit.
    * no haber manera de = there + be + no way.
    * no haber modo de = there + be + no means of.
    * no haber mucha señal de que = there + be + little sign of.
    * no haber muchas señales de que = there + be + little sign of.
    * no + haber + nada como = there + be + nothing like.
    * no haber nada de verdad en = there + be + any/no truth to.
    * no + haber + nada malo en = there + be + nothing wrong in/with.
    * no haber palabras para describirlo = beggar + description.
    * no haber pero que valer = not take + no for an answer.
    * no haber prisa = there + be + no hurry.
    * no haber problemas = be fine.
    * no haber señal de que = there + be + no sign of.
    * no habiendo = in the absence of.
    * no hay nada como = nothing beats....
    * no hay nada mejor que = nothing beats....
    * poner en el haber de = credit.
    * sin haber contacto = non-contact.
    * ya hemos hablado bastante de = so much for.
    * * *
    I 1.
    verbo auxiliar
    1) ( en tiempos compuestos) to have

    no han/habían llegado — they haven't/hadn't arrived

    como se haya olvidado lo mato — if he's forgotten, I'll kill him!

    ¿se habrán perdido? — do you think they've o they might have got lost?

    de haberlo sabido — had I known, if I'd known

    2)
    a) (frml) (expresando obligación, necesidad)

    haber de + inf — to have to + inf

    ha de ser firmado por ambas partes — it has to o must be signed by both parties

    ha de llegar un día en que... — the day will come when...

    c) (expresando probabilidad, certeza)

    pero ¿sabes lo que dices? - no lo he de saber! — but do you know what you're saying? - of course I do!

    2.
    haber v impers
    1) (existir, estar, darse)

    hay una carta/varias cartas para ti — there's a letter/there are several letters for you

    ¿qué tomarán de postre? - ¿hay helado? — what would you like for dessert? - do you have any ice cream?

    ¿cuántos kilómetros hay hasta Sevilla? — how many kilometers are there o is it to Seville?

    hay quien piensa que... — there are those who feel that...

    gracias - no hay de qué — thank you - don't mention it o not at all o you're welcome

    hola ¿qué hay/hay de nuevo? — (fam) hello, how are things/what's new?

    es un poco largo - ¿qué hay? — (CS fam) it's rather long - so what?

    ¿qué hubo? — (Andes, Méx, Ven fam) how are things?

    ¿qué hubo de lo de Jorge y Ana? — what happened with Jorge and Ana?

    habérselas con alguien: tendrá que habérselas conmigo he'll have me to deal with; habido y por haber: todos los trucos habidos y por haber — every trick in the book (colloq)

    haber que + inf: hay que estudiar you/we/they must study; hubo que romperlo we/they had to break it; hay que decir algo something has to be said; había que verlo! you should have seen him!; no hay más que apretarlo all you have to do is press it; no hay que darle muy fuerte — ( no es necesario) you don't need o have to hit it too hard; ( no se debe) you mustn't hit it too hard

    muchos años/mucho tiempo ha — many years/a long time ago

    3.
    haber vt habido -da participio pasado (frml) ( tenido)

    los hijos habidos en el/fuera del matrimonio — children born in/out of wedlock (frml)

    II
    a) ( bienes) assets (pl)
    b) ( en contabilidad) credit side

    tener algo en su haber — (period) to have something to one's credit

    c) haberes masculino plural (frml) (emolumentos, paga) income, earnings (pl)

    los haberes que se le adeudan — moneys o monies owed to you (frml)

    * * *
    = be available, come in, there + be, there + have + been, be in place, accounts receivable.

    Ex: This emphasis upon 'the work' reflects the packaging of text, information, music, graphics, and so on, and indicates to the subsequent user what packages are available for use or consultation.

    Ex: Such records come in a variety of physical forms.
    Ex: There are a relatively large number of documents under each heading.
    Ex: Mr. Kilgour's publications are truly too voluminous to list; over a period of four decades, there have been few years in which he has not published.
    Ex: Modular courses are already in place from which a student can pick and mix.
    Ex: This software includes separate programs for general ledger: accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll and inventory.
    * deber haber ocurrido antes = be long overdue.
    * debería haber = there + ought to be.
    * en el haber de Uno = under + Posesivo + belt.
    * en + Posesivo + haber = to + Posesivo + credit.
    * en su haber = on the credit side.
    * haber algo raro con = there + be + something fishy going on with.
    * haber algo sospechoso con = there + be + something fishy going on with.
    * haber bebido demasiado = be over the limit.
    * haber decidido = be intent on.
    * haber de muchos tipos = come in + all/many (sorts of) shapes and sizes.
    * haber de muy diversos tipos = come in + all/many (sorts of) shapes and sizes.
    * haber dinero de por medio = money + change hands.
    * haber división de opiniones = be split on, opinion + be divided.
    * haber división de opiniones entre los críticos = critics + be divided.
    * haberes = assets, holdings.
    * haber escasez de = be in short supply, be at a premium.
    * haber existencias = be in stock.
    * haber ganado la mitad de la batalla = be half the battle.
    * haber ganado sólo la mitad de la batalla = be only half the battle.
    * haber llegado = be upon us.
    * haber muchísima diferencia = be in a different league.
    * haber nacido en = be a native of.
    * haber pasado por aquí antes = have been down this road before.
    * haber poca duda de que = there + be + little doubt that.
    * haber + que reconocer que = have to hand it to + Nombre.
    * haber quórum = be quorate.
    * haber recorrido mucho mundo = be well-travelled.
    * haberse propuesto = be intent on.
    * haber sido aceptado = be here to stay, have come + to stay.
    * haber sido comprobado exhaustivamente = be thoroughly tested.
    * haber terminado la jornada laboral = be off duty.
    * haber todavía más = there + be + more to it than that.
    * haber un aire de emoción = there + be + an air of excitement.
    * haber un aire de expectación = there + be + an air of expectation.
    * haber una transacción económica de por medio = money + change hands.
    * haber un viento huracanado = wind + blow great guns.
    * haber viajado mucho = be well-travelled.
    * ha de ser + Participio = be to be + Participio.
    * he = I've (I have).
    * hubo una época en la que = there was a time when.
    * lo que haya que de ser, será = que sera sera, what's meant to be, will be, whatever will be, will be.
    * mientras haya existencias = while stocks last, subject to availability.
    * no haber = be unavailable.
    * no haber consecuencias = nothing + come of.
    * no + haber + dos + Nombre que = no two + Nombre.
    * no haber duda de que = there + be + no doubt that.
    * no haber duda (que) = there + be + no question (that).
    * no haber forma de = there + be + no way.
    * no haber indicios de que = there + be + no indication that.
    * no haber límites = there + be + no limit.
    * no haber manera de = there + be + no way.
    * no haber modo de = there + be + no means of.
    * no haber mucha señal de que = there + be + little sign of.
    * no haber muchas señales de que = there + be + little sign of.
    * no + haber + nada como = there + be + nothing like.
    * no haber nada de verdad en = there + be + any/no truth to.
    * no + haber + nada malo en = there + be + nothing wrong in/with.
    * no haber palabras para describirlo = beggar + description.
    * no haber pero que valer = not take + no for an answer.
    * no haber prisa = there + be + no hurry.
    * no haber problemas = be fine.
    * no haber señal de que = there + be + no sign of.
    * no habiendo = in the absence of.
    * no hay nada como = nothing beats....
    * no hay nada mejor que = nothing beats....
    * poner en el haber de = credit.
    * sin haber contacto = non-contact.
    * ya hemos hablado bastante de = so much for.

    * * *
    haber1 [ E17 ]
    A
    (en los tiempos compuestos): no han/habían llegado they haven't/hadn't arrived
    como se haya olvidado lo mato if he's forgotten, I'll kill him!
    cuando/no bien hubo terminado ( liter); when/as soon as she had finished
    ¿se habrán perdido? do you think they've o they might have got lost?
    no habrán tenido tiempo they probably haven't had time
    ¿quién hubiera pensado que llegaría tan lejos? whoever would have thought she'd get so far!
    está arrepentida — ¡(que) lo hubiera pensado antes! she says she's sorry — she should have thought about it before!
    yo también quería ir — ¡haberlo dicho! I wanted to go too — you should have said so!
    de haberlo sabido te habría avisado had I known o if I'd known, I'd have told you
    B
    1 ( frml) (expresando obligación, necesidad) haber DE + INF:
    el contrato ha de ser firmado por ambas partes the contract must be signed by both parties
    hemos de averiguar qué sucedió we have to o must find out what happened
    2 (expresando acción futura) haber DE + INF:
    ha de llegar un día en que … the day will come when …
    3 (expresando probabilidad, certeza) haber DE + INF:
    ha de ser tarde it must be late
    ya lo han de haber recibido they must have received it by now
    pero ¿sabes lo que dices? — ¡no lo he de saber! but do you know what you're saying? — of course I do!
    A
    (existir, estar, darse): hay una carta/varias cartas para ti there's a letter/there are several letters for you
    ha habido un cambio/varios cambios en el programa there has been a change/there have been several changes in the program
    había un cliente/tres clientes esperando there was a customer/there were three customers waiting
    ayer hubo un accidente/dos accidentes there was an accident/there were two accidents yesterday
    no quiero que haya discusiones I don't want there to be any arguments
    ¿qué van a tomar de postre? — ¿hay helado? what would you like for dessert? — do you have any ice cream?
    esta vez no hubo suerte, otra vez será we were unlucky o out of luck this time, maybe next time
    ¿cuántos kilómetros hay de Mérida a Sevilla? how many kilometers are there o is it from Mérida to Seville?
    no hay día en que no tengan una discusión not a day goes by without their having an argument
    no hay como un buen descanso cuando uno se siente así there's nothing like a good rest when you're feeling like that
    no hay quien lo aguante he's absolutely unbearable
    hay quien piensa que es un error there are those who feel it's a mistake
    hubo or ( crit) hubieron varios heridos several people were injured
    habíamos sólo tres niñas ( crit); we were the only three girls, there were only three of us girls ( colloq)
    [ S ] hay leche fresca fresh milk sold o on sale here
    las hay rojas y amarillas también there are o you can get red ones and yellow ones too
    dijo que no había problemas pero los hay she said there weren't any problems but there are
    ¡no hay más que hablar! there's nothing more to be said! o that's my last word (on the subject)!
    gracias — no hay de qué thank you — don't mention it o not at all o it's a pleasure o you're welcome
    no hay de qué preocuparse there's nothing to worry about
    hola ¿qué hay? ( fam); hello, how are things?
    ¿qué hay de nuevo? what's new?
    es un poco largo — ¿qué hay? ¡lo acortamos! (CS fam); it's rather long — so what? we'll shorten it
    ¿qué hubo? (Col, Méx fam); how are things?
    ¿qué hubo de lo de Jorge y Ana? what happened with Jorge and Ana?
    donde los/las haya: es listo/sinvergüenza donde los haya he's as clever/rotten as they come
    habérselas con algn/algo: como vuelva por aquí tendrá que habérselas conmigo if he comes around here again he'll have me to deal with
    habido y por haber: se conoce todos los trucos habidos y por haber she knows every trick in the book
    he leído todo lo habido y por haber sobre el tema I've read absolutely everything there is to read on the subject
    ser de lo que no hay ( fam): eres de lo que no hay, nunca más te confío un secreto you're the limit o you're unbelievable! I'm never going to tell you a secret again
    B (ser necesario) haber QUE + INF:
    va a haber que hacerlo it'll have to be done
    hay que ser más optimista you/we/they must be more optimistic
    hubo que tirar la puerta abajo we/they had to break the door down
    me dijo que había que entregarlo el lunes he told me it had to be handed in on Monday
    ¡hay que ver qué genio tiene el mocito! well, well, he has got a temper, hasn't he!
    ¡hay que ver! ¡las cosas que uno tiene que aguantar! honestly! the things one has to put up with!
    ¡había que verlo allí jugando en la nieve! you should have seen him there playing in the snow!
    no hay más que apretar el botón all you have to do is press the button
    no hay que darle muy fuerte (no es necesario) you don't need to o you don't have to hit it too hard; (no se debe) you mustn't hit it too hard
    C ( liter)
    (en expresiones de tiempo): muchos años/mucho tiempo ha many years/a long time ago
    años ha que no sé nada de él I haven't heard from him for years
    vt
    habido, -da
    pp ( frml) (tenido): los hijos habidos fuera del matrimonio children born out of wedlock ( frml)
    cuatro hijos habidos de dos padres distintos four children born of two different fathers
    A (bienes) assets (pl)
    varias fincas forman parte de su haber his assets include various properties
    B (en contabilidad) credit side
    tener algo en su haber ( period): tiene en su haber varios premios literarios he has several literary prizes to his credit
    ya tiene cuatro robos en su haber he has already notched up four robberies
    (emolumentos, paga): los haberes que se le adeudan moneys o monies owed to you ( frml)
    los haberes del mes de diciembre income o earnings for the month of December
    * * *

     

    haber 1 ( conjugate haber) v aux ( en tiempos compuestos) to have;

    de haberlo sabido had I known, if I'd known;
    ¡deberías haberlo dicho! you should have said so!
    haber v impers (existir, estar, darse): hay una carta/varias cartas para ti there's a letter/there are several letters for you;
    ¿hay un banco por aquí? is there a bank near here?;
    hubo dos accidentes there were two accidents;
    ¿hay helado? do you have any ice cream?;
    no hay como un buen descanso there's nothing like a good rest;
    hubo varios heridos several people were injured;
    las hay rojas y verdes there are red ones and green ones;
    gracias — no hay de qué thank you — don't mention it o not at all o you're welcome;
    no hay de qué preocuparse there's nothing to worry about;
    ¿qué hay de nuevo? (fam) what's new?;
    hola ¿qué hay? (fam) hello, how are things?;
    ¿qué hubo? (Andes, Méx, Ven fam) how are things?
    ( ser necesario) haber que + inf:
    ◊ hay que estudiar you/we/they must study;

    hubo que romperlo we/they had to break it;
    no hay que lavarlo ( no es necesario) you don't need o have to wash it;

    ( no se debe) you mustn't wash it
    haber 2 sustantivo masculino
    a) ( bienes) assets (pl)


    c)

    ◊ haberes sustantivo masculino plural (frml) ( ingresos) income, earnings (pl)

    haber
    I verbo auxiliar
    1 (en tiempos compuestos) to have: espero que no lo haya hecho, I hope he hasn't done it
    lo he comido todo, I've eaten it all
    lo hubiera hecho de todos modos, she would have done it anyway
    II verbo impersonal
    1 (existir, estar, hallarse) hay, there is o are
    había, there was o were: hay poco que decir, there is little to be said
    había muchísima gente en la estación, there were a lot of people in the station
    hay cien metros de mi casa a la estación, it's a hundred metres from my home to the station
    2 (ocurrir, suceder) la guerra que hubo en el 36, the war that took place in 36
    habrá una reunión, there will be a meeting
    hoy hay fiesta en el club náutico, there's a party today in the sailing club
    los robos habidos en este barrio, the robberies which have been committed in this neighbourhood
    III ( haber de + infinitivo) (obligación) to have to: has de ser más estudioso, you must be more studious
    ( haber que + infinitivo) (conveniencia, necesidad u obligación) it is necessary to: habrá que ir, we will have to go
    habría que pintar el salón, we should paint the living room
    hay que hacerlo, you must do it
    IV nm
    1 Fin credit 2 en su haber, in his possession
    figurado in his favour
    V mpl haberes, (bienes) assets
    (salario) wages
    ♦ Locuciones: había una vez..., once upon a time...
    no hay de qué, you're welcome o don't mention it
    Hay que tener mucho cuidado al traducir este verbo, ya que el inglés diferencia entre el singular y el plural: Hay un hombre fuera. There is a man outside. Hay dos hombres fuera. There are two men outside. Había un gato en el tejado. There was a cat on the roof. Había muchos libros. There were a lot of books.
    ' haber' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    abundar
    - apencar
    - comprobante
    - contrapartida
    - deber
    - dolo
    - estrechamiento
    - ir
    - gravedad
    - llevarse
    - localmente
    - parecer
    - perdón
    - pesar
    - ropa
    - satisfacción
    - sobrar
    - tirada
    - acusar
    - altura
    - con
    - encantado
    - existir
    - faltar
    - habrá
    - hay
    - he
    - hube
    - lo
    - los
    - poder
    - quedar
    - seguir
    English:
    awfully
    - be
    - catch
    - credit side
    - deny
    - doghouse
    - earth
    - have
    - hotly
    - life
    - limit
    - party
    - point-blank
    - recollect
    - regret
    - remember
    - save
    - still
    - thank
    - there
    - through
    - wish
    - achievement
    - anticipate
    - apologize
    - but
    - could
    - expect
    - further
    - likely
    - mean
    - mercy
    - might
    - must
    - name
    - otherwise
    - ought
    - over
    - report
    - should
    - sorry
    - suggest
    - will
    * * *
    ♦ v aux
    1. [en tiempos compuestos] to have;
    lo he/había hecho I have/had done it;
    los niños ya han comido the children have already eaten;
    no he estado en la India I haven't been to India;
    en el estreno ha habido mucha gente there were a lot of people at the première
    2. [expresa reproche]
    haber venido antes you could have come a bit earlier;
    ¡haberlo dicho! why didn't you say so?;
    haberme escuchado I told you (so), you should have listened to me;
    de haberlo sabido… if only I'd known…
    3. [expresa obligación]
    haber de hacer algo to have to do sth;
    has de estudiar más you have to study more;
    he de llamarle I ought to call him;
    ha de llegar un día en el que todo se arregle there's bound to come a time when everything gets sorted out;
    siempre has de ser tú el que se queje you always have to be the one to complain
    ♦ v impersonal
    1. [existir, estar]
    hay there is/are;
    hay un regalo para ti there's a present for you;
    hay dos árboles en la plaza there are two trees on the square;
    hay mucha gente en la calle there are a lot of people in the street;
    había/hubo muchos problemas there were a lot of problems;
    no hubo tal penalty it wasn't a penalty;
    habrá dos mil [expresa futuro] there will be two thousand;
    [expresa hipótesis] there must be two thousand;
    los hay de distintas tallas they come in different sizes;
    ¿cuánto hay de aquí a Santiago? how far is it from here to Santiago?;
    hay quien opina que… there are those who think that…;
    es un caballero como hay pocos he's that rare thing, a real gentleman;
    es un artista donde los haya he's as good an artist as you'll find;
    algo habrá cuando todo el mundo habla de ello if everyone's talking about it there must be something in it;
    (todo) lo habido y por haber everything under the sun;
    gracias – no hay de qué thank you – don't mention it;
    no hay día (en) que no haya algún accidente a day doesn't go by without there being some kind of accident;
    no hay más que apretar el botón simply press the button;
    no hay nada como una buena comida there's nothing like a good meal;
    no hay nadie como ella there's no one like her;
    no hay quien lo entienda there's no understanding him;
    no hay más que hablar there is no more to be said;
    ¡hay que ver! well I never!;
    no hay más que ver lo feliz que está you just have to see how happy she is;
    ¡eres de lo que no hay! you're unbelievable!
    2. [expresa obligación]
    hay que hacer más ejercicio one o you should do more exercise;
    hay que comer para vivir we must eat in order to live;
    hay que esforzarse más, Luis you need to try harder, Luis;
    no hay que apretar tanto there's no need to press so hard;
    creo que había que contárselo I think we ought to tell him;
    ¡aquello había que verlo! you should have seen it!;
    habrá que soportar su mal humor we'll have to put up with his bad mood
    3. Fam [en preguntas]
    ¿qué hay? [saludo] how are you doing?;
    CSur [¿qué importa?] so (what)?, big deal!;
    ¿qué hay de nuevo? what's new?;
    CSur
    está lloviendo -- ¿y qué hay?, estamos en auto it's raining -- so what? we're in the car;
    CAm, Col, Méx, Ven
    ¿qué hubo? [saludo] how are you doing?
    4. Literario [hacer]
    tres meses ha que marchó it is three months since she left
    ♦ vt
    Formal [tener]
    el abuelo, que Dios haya en su gloria,… grandfather, God rest his soul,…;
    los hijos habidos en el matrimonio the children from the marriage
    * * *
    I v/aux
    1 en tiempos compuestos have;
    hemos llegado we’ve arrived;
    lo he oído I’ve heard it;
    ¿la ha visto? has he seen her?
    :
    he de levantarme pronto I have to o I’ve got to get up early
    3
    :
    de haberlo sabido if I’d known;
    has de ver Méx you have o
    ought to see it;
    habérselas con alguien have it out with s.o.;
    años ha lit years ago
    II v/ impers
    1 ( existir)
    :
    hay there is sg, there are pl ;
    hubo un incendio there was a fire;
    había mucha gente there were a lot of people;
    hoy no hay clase there aren’t any lessons today, school is closed today;
    ya no hay más there’s none left; there are none left;
    no hay como … there’s nothing like …;
    esto es de lo que no hay this is the limit!
    :
    hay que hacerlo it has to be done;
    no hay de qué not at all, don’t mention it;
    no hay más que decir there’s nothing more to be said;
    no hay que pagar para entrar you don’t have to pay to go in;
    no hay que hablar con la boca llena you mustn’t o shouldn’t talk with your mouth full
    3
    :
    ¿qué hay?, Méx
    ¿qué hubo? how’s it going?, what’s happening?;
    es ingenioso donde los haya he’s as ingenious as they come
    III m asset; pago fee;
    tiene en su haber 50.000 pesos she’s 50,000 pesos in credit;
    haberes pl ( bienes) assets; ( sueldo) salary sg
    * * *
    haber {39} v aux
    1) : have, has
    no ha llegado el envío: the shipment hasn't arrived
    2)
    haber de : must
    ha de ser tarde: it must be late
    haber v impers
    1)
    hay : there is, there are
    hay dos mensajes: there are two messages
    ¿qué hay de nuevo?: what's new?
    2)
    hay que : it is necessary
    hay que trabajar más rápido: you have to work faster
    haber nm
    1) : assets pl
    2) : credit, credit side
    3) haberes nmpl
    : salary, income, remuneration
    * * *
    haber vb
    1. (verbo auxiliar) to have
    ¿has comido? have you eaten?
    2. (existir, tener lugar) there is / there are
    ¿qué hay? how are things?

    Spanish-English dictionary > haber

  • 11 comunidad

    f.
    1 community (grupo).
    comunidad de propietarios o de vecinos residents' association
    la comunidad científica/internacional the scientific/international community
    comunidad Andina Andean Community
    comunidad autónoma (politics) autonomous region, = largest administrative division in Spain, with its own Parliament and a number of devolved powers
    2 communion (cualidad de común) (de ideas, bienes).
    * * *
    1 community
    \
    en comunidad together
    comunidad autónoma autonomous region
    comunidad de propietarios owners' association
    Comunidad Económica Europea European Economic Community
    * * *
    noun f.
    * * *
    SF
    1) [gen] community; (=sociedad) society, association; (Rel) community; And commune ( of free Indians)

    de o en comunidad — (Jur) jointly

    comunidad autónoma — Esp autonomous region

    2) (=pago) [de piso] service charge, charge for communal services
    COMUNIDAD AUTÓNOMA In Spain the comunidades autónomas are any of the 19 administrative regions consisting of one or more provinces and having political powers devolved from Madrid, as stipulated by the 1978 Constitution. They have their own democratically elected parliaments, form their own cabinets and legislate and execute policies in certain areas such as housing, infrastructure, health and education, though Madrid still retains jurisdiction for all matters affecting the country as a whole, such as defence, foreign affairs and justice. The Comunidades Autónomas are: Andalucía, Aragón, Asturias, Islas Baleares, Canarias, Cantabria, Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Cataluña, Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarra, País Vasco, La Rioja, Comunidad Valenciana, Ceuta and Melilla. The term Comunidades Históricas refers to Galicia, Catalonia and the Basque Country, which for reasons of history and language consider themselves to some extent separate from the rest of Spain. They were given a measure of independence by the Second Republic (1931-1936), only to have it revoked by Franco in 1939. With the transition to democracy, these groups were the most vociferous and successful in their demand for home rule, partly because they already had experience of federalism and had established a precedent with autonomous institutions like the Catalan Generalitat.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( sociedad) community
    b) ( grupo delimitado) community
    c) (Relig) community
    d) ( asociación) association
    2) ( coincidencia) community

    comunidad de ideales/objetivos — community of ideals/objectives

    •• Cultural note:
    In 1978 power in Spain was decentralized and the country was divided into comunidades autónomas or autonomías (autonomous regions). The new communities have far greater autonomy from central government than the old regiones and were a response to nationalist aspirations, which had built up under Franco. Some regions have more autonomy than others. The Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia, for example, had political structures, a desire for independence and their own languages which underpinned their claims to distinctive identities. Andalusia gained almost complete autonomy without having had a nationalist tradition. Other regions, such as Madrid, are to some extent artificial, having been created largely to complete the process. The comunidades autónomas are: Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic Islands, the Basque Country (Euskadi), Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, La Rioja, Valencia and the North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla
    * * *
    Ex. Language of documents and data bases will need to be tailored to each community.
    ----
    * asociación de la comunidad = community group.
    * biblioteca de la comunidad = community library.
    * bibliotecario encargado de los servicios dirigidos a la comunidad = community services librarian.
    * Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas (CEC) = Commission of the European Communities (CEC).
    * comunidad académica = academic community, learning community.
    * comunidad académica de investigadores = academic research community.
    * comunidad agrícola = farming community.
    * comunidad a la que se sirve = service area.
    * comunidad autónoma = autonomous region.
    * comunidad bancaria, la = banking community, the.
    * comunidad bibliotecaria, la = library community, the, librarianship community, the.
    * Comunidad Británica de Naciones, la = Commonwealth, the.
    * comunidad científica = knowledge community.
    * comunidad científica, la = scientific community, the, scholarly community, the, research community, the, scientific research community, the.
    * comunidad conectada electrónicamente = online community.
    * comunidad de bibliotecarios y documentalistas, la = library and information community, the.
    * comunidad de educadores, la = education community, the.
    * comunidad de lectores = reader community.
    * comunidad de naciones = comity of nations, commonwealth.
    * comunidad de pescadores = fishing community.
    * comunidad de prácticas comunes = community of practice, community of practice, community of practice.
    * comunidad de proveedores = vendor community.
    * comunidad de proveedores, la = vending community, the.
    * comunidad de usuarios = constituency, user community.
    * comunidad de vecinos = housing association.
    * comunidad dispersa = scattered community.
    * Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE) = European Economic Community (EEC).
    * comunidad editorial, la = publishing community, the.
    * comunidad electrónica = online community.
    * comunidad empresarial, la = business community, the.
    * Comunidad Europea (CE) = EC (European Community).
    * Comunidad Europea de la Energía Atómica (Euratom/EAEC) = European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom/EAEC).
    * Comunidad Europea del Carbón y el Acero (CECA) = European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
    * comunidad internacional, la = international community, the.
    * comunidad laboral = working community.
    * comunidad lingüística = language community, linguistic community.
    * comunidad local = local community.
    * comunidad marginada = deprived community.
    * comunidad marginal = disadvantaged community.
    * comunidad mundial, la = world community, the.
    * comunidad pluralista = pluralistic community.
    * comunidad religiosa = religious community.
    * comunidad rural = rural community.
    * comunidad urbana = urban community.
    * de la propia comunidad = community-owned.
    * Denominación de Productos para las Estadísticas del Comercio Externo de la = Nomenclature of Goods for the External Trade Statistics of the Community and Statistics of Trade between Member States (NIMEXE).
    * derecho de la comunidad = community right.
    * dirigido a la comunidad = community-based.
    * implicación de la comunidad = community involvement.
    * la comunidad en general = the community at large.
    * líder de la comunidad = community leader.
    * miembro de la Comunidad = community member, Community member.
    * no perteneciente a la Comunidad Europea = non-EC.
    * países de la Comunidad Europea = European Communities.
    * países miembro de la Comunidad = Community partner.
    * país miembro de la Comunidad = Community member state.
    * patrocinado por la comunidad = community-sponsored.
    * representante de la comunidad = community activist.
    * residente en la comunidad = community-dwelling.
    * toda la comunidad = the community at large.
    * vida de la comunidad = community life.
    * * *
    1)
    a) ( sociedad) community
    b) ( grupo delimitado) community
    c) (Relig) community
    d) ( asociación) association
    2) ( coincidencia) community

    comunidad de ideales/objetivos — community of ideals/objectives

    •• Cultural note:
    In 1978 power in Spain was decentralized and the country was divided into comunidades autónomas or autonomías (autonomous regions). The new communities have far greater autonomy from central government than the old regiones and were a response to nationalist aspirations, which had built up under Franco. Some regions have more autonomy than others. The Basque Country, Catalonia, and Galicia, for example, had political structures, a desire for independence and their own languages which underpinned their claims to distinctive identities. Andalusia gained almost complete autonomy without having had a nationalist tradition. Other regions, such as Madrid, are to some extent artificial, having been created largely to complete the process. The comunidades autónomas are: Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Balearic Islands, the Basque Country (Euskadi), Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, Madrid, Murcia, Navarre, La Rioja, Valencia and the North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla
    * * *

    Ex: Language of documents and data bases will need to be tailored to each community.

    * asociación de la comunidad = community group.
    * biblioteca de la comunidad = community library.
    * bibliotecario encargado de los servicios dirigidos a la comunidad = community services librarian.
    * Comisión de las Comunidades Europeas (CEC) = Commission of the European Communities (CEC).
    * comunidad académica = academic community, learning community.
    * comunidad académica de investigadores = academic research community.
    * comunidad agrícola = farming community.
    * comunidad a la que se sirve = service area.
    * comunidad autónoma = autonomous region.
    * comunidad bancaria, la = banking community, the.
    * comunidad bibliotecaria, la = library community, the, librarianship community, the.
    * Comunidad Británica de Naciones, la = Commonwealth, the.
    * comunidad científica = knowledge community.
    * comunidad científica, la = scientific community, the, scholarly community, the, research community, the, scientific research community, the.
    * comunidad conectada electrónicamente = online community.
    * comunidad de bibliotecarios y documentalistas, la = library and information community, the.
    * comunidad de educadores, la = education community, the.
    * comunidad de lectores = reader community.
    * comunidad de naciones = comity of nations, commonwealth.
    * comunidad de pescadores = fishing community.
    * comunidad de prácticas comunes = community of practice, community of practice, community of practice.
    * comunidad de proveedores = vendor community.
    * comunidad de proveedores, la = vending community, the.
    * comunidad de usuarios = constituency, user community.
    * comunidad de vecinos = housing association.
    * comunidad dispersa = scattered community.
    * Comunidad Económica Europea (CEE) = European Economic Community (EEC).
    * comunidad editorial, la = publishing community, the.
    * comunidad electrónica = online community.
    * comunidad empresarial, la = business community, the.
    * Comunidad Europea (CE) = EC (European Community).
    * Comunidad Europea de la Energía Atómica (Euratom/EAEC) = European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom/EAEC).
    * Comunidad Europea del Carbón y el Acero (CECA) = European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
    * comunidad internacional, la = international community, the.
    * comunidad laboral = working community.
    * comunidad lingüística = language community, linguistic community.
    * comunidad local = local community.
    * comunidad marginada = deprived community.
    * comunidad marginal = disadvantaged community.
    * comunidad mundial, la = world community, the.
    * comunidad pluralista = pluralistic community.
    * comunidad religiosa = religious community.
    * comunidad rural = rural community.
    * comunidad urbana = urban community.
    * de la propia comunidad = community-owned.
    * Denominación de Productos para las Estadísticas del Comercio Externo de la = Nomenclature of Goods for the External Trade Statistics of the Community and Statistics of Trade between Member States (NIMEXE).
    * derecho de la comunidad = community right.
    * dirigido a la comunidad = community-based.
    * implicación de la comunidad = community involvement.
    * la comunidad en general = the community at large.
    * líder de la comunidad = community leader.
    * miembro de la Comunidad = community member, Community member.
    * no perteneciente a la Comunidad Europea = non-EC.
    * países de la Comunidad Europea = European Communities.
    * países miembro de la Comunidad = Community partner.
    * país miembro de la Comunidad = Community member state.
    * patrocinado por la comunidad = community-sponsored.
    * representante de la comunidad = community activist.
    * residente en la comunidad = community-dwelling.
    * toda la comunidad = the community at large.
    * vida de la comunidad = community life.

    * * *
    comunidad comunidad autónoma (↑ comunidad a1)
    A
    1 (sociedad) community
    para el bien de la comunidad for the good of the community
    2 (grupo delimitado) community
    la comunidad polaca the Polish community
    vivir en comunidad to live with other people
    3 ( Relig) community
    4 (asociación) association
    Compuestos:
    (British) Commonwealth
    ( Hist) European Economic Community
    ( Hist) European Community
    European Coal and Steel Community
    B (coincidencia) community
    no existe comunidad de ideales/objetivos entre ambos grupos there is no community of ideals/objectives between the two groups, the two groups do not share common ideals/objectives
    la sublevación de las Comunidades the Revolt of the Comuneros
    * * *

     

    comunidad sustantivo femenino
    community;

    comunidad sustantivo femenino community
    comunidad autónoma, autonomous region
    comunidad de bienes, co-ownership
    Comunidad Europea, European Community

    ' comunidad' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    bien
    - CE
    - CECA
    - CEE
    - consejería
    - depender
    - EURATOM
    - homologación
    - primar
    - pueblo
    - reintegrar
    - autonomía
    English:
    Commonwealth of Independent States
    - community
    - fraternity
    - homeowners assocation
    - integrate
    - scattered
    - service charge
    - European
    - general
    - pillar
    - service
    * * *
    1. [grupo] community;
    la comunidad científica/educativa/judía the scientific/education/Jewish community;
    vivir en comunidad to live in a community
    Comunidad Andina Andean Community, = organization for regional cooperation formed by Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela;
    comunidad autónoma autonomous region, = largest administrative division in Spain, with its own Parliament and a number of devolved powers;
    comunidad de base [religiosa] base community, = lay Catholic community independent of church hierarchy;
    Comunidad Británica de Naciones (British) Commonwealth;
    Antes Comunidad Económica Europea European Economic Community;
    la Comunidad Europea, las Comunidades Europeas the European Community;
    la comunidad internacional the international community;
    comunidad linguística speech community;
    comunidad de propietarios residents' association;
    comunidad de vecinos residents' association
    2. [de ideas, bienes] communion
    comunidad de bienes co-ownership [between spouses]
    3. Am [colectividad] commune;
    vive en una comunidad anarquista she lives in an anarchist commune
    COMUNIDAD ANDINA
    The Comunidad Andina de Naciones (CAN – Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela) has its origins in the 1969 “Acuerdo de Cartagena”. Over subsequent decades the various institutions which now form the CAN were set up: the Council of Foreign Ministers in 1979, the Court of Justice in 1983, the Presidential Council in 1990, and the General Secretariat in 1997. The ultimate aim has been to create a Latin American common market. A free trade area was established in 1993, and a common external customs tariff in 1994. While all members have adopted a common foreign policy, more ambitious attempts at integration have been less successful. However, with a combined population of 122 million, and a GDP in 2004 of 300 billion dollars, the community is a significant economic group. In 2004, the leaders of the countries of South America decided to create the “Comunidad Sudamericana de Naciones” (“South American Community of Nations”) or CSN by a gradual convergence between the CAN and Mercosur (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay), plus Chile, Guyana and Surinam. This will create, in time, a vast free-trade area encompassing all of South America.
    * * *
    f community;
    hereditaria heirs pl
    * * *
    : community
    * * *
    comunidad n community [pl. communities]

    Spanish-English dictionary > comunidad

  • 12 último

    adj.
    1 last, finishing, last one, hindmost.
    2 ultimate, quintessential.
    * * *
    1 last
    2 (más reciente) latest; (de dos) latter
    3 (más alejado) furthest; (más abajo) bottom, lowest; (más arriba) top; (más atrás) back
    4 (definitivo) final
    \
    a la última up to date
    a últimos de towards the end of
    por último finally
    ser lo último familiar (el colmo) to be just too much
    estar en las últimas (moribundo) to be at death's door 2 (arruinado) to be down and out
    * * *
    (f. - última)
    adj.
    1) last
    •
    * * *
    último, -a
    1. ADJ
    1) (=final) last

    la Última Cena — (Rel) the Last Supper

    • a lo último — * in the end

    ¿y qué ocurre a lo último? — and what happens in the end?

    • por último — finally, lastly

    por último, el conferenciante hizo referencia a... — finally o lastly, the speaker mentioned...

    • por última vez — for the last time

    2) (=más reciente)
    a) [en una serie] [ejemplar, moda, novedad] latest; [elecciones, periodo] last

    ¿has leído el último número de la revista? — have you read the latest issue of the magazine?

    los dos últimos cuadros que ha hecho no son tan innovadores — his two latest o his latest two paintings are not so innovative

    durante la última década — in o over the last decade

    • ahora último — Chile recently

    • en los últimos años — in o over the last few years, in recent years

    • en los últimos tiempos — lately

    b) [entre dos] latter

    de los dos, este último es el mejor — of the two, the latter is the best

    hora 2), b)
    3) [en el espacio]
    a) (=más al fondo) back
    b) (=más alto) top
    c) (=más bajo) bottom, last
    d) (=más lejano) most remote, furthest
    4) (=extremo)

    en último caso, iría yo — as a last resort o if all else fails, I would go

    extremo II, 1., 2), instancia 3), remedio 2)
    5) (=definitivo)
    6)

    • lo último * —

    a) (=lo más moderno) the latest thing
    b) (=lo peor) the limit
    2. SM / F
    1)

    el último — the last, the last one

    ¿quién es la última? — who's the last in the queue?

    el último en salir que apague la luz — the last one to leave, turn the light off

    a la última —

    vestir
    2) *

    ¿a qué no sabes la última de Irene? — do you know the latest about Irene?

    3) Esp
    3.
    ADV Cono Sur in the last position, in the last place
    * * *
    I
    - ma adjetivo (delante del n)
    1)
    a) ( en el tiempo) last

    en el último momento or a última hora — at the last minute o moment

    ¿cuándo fue la última vez que lo usaste? — when did you last use it?

    en los últimos tiempos — recently, in recent years (o months etc)

    2)
    a) ( en una serie) last

    último aviso a los pasajeros del vuelo... — last o final call for passengers on flight...

    b) (como adv) (CS) <salir/terminar> last
    •
    II
    - ma masculino, femenino last one

    ¿sabes la última que me hizo? — do you know what he's done to me now?

    ¿te cuento la última? — (fam) do you want to hear the latest? (colloq)

    a últimos de — (Esp) toward(s) the end of

    por último — finally, lastly

    en (Col) or (Ven) de últimas — as a last resort, if the worst comes to the worst

    a la última — (fam)

    * * *
    = last, latter, ultimate, innermost, final, back marker.
    Ex. We now come to the sixth and last condition of authorship.
    Ex. The former necessitate the constant comparison, or manipulation, of index entries rather than the linear scanning of entries in the latter.
    Ex. Abstracting and indexing data are a vital component in the communication link between the originator of information and its ultimate consumer.
    Ex. Thus a folio gathering might consist of three folio sheets, the outermost of which contained pages 1 and 12 and pages 2 and 11; the middle sheet had pages 3 and 10, 4 and 9; and the innermost sheet had pages 5 and 8, 6 and 7.
    Ex. The final index will mirror current terminology.
    Ex. I went right off Hamilton when he referred to back markers as something like 'those monkeys who get in the way' half way through the first season.
    ----
    * a la última = hip [hipper -comp., hippest -sup.], on the fast track, hipped.
    * a última hora = at the last minute, at the eleventh hour, last minute [last-minute], at the very last minute, at the very last moment, at the very last.
    * a últimas horas de la tarde = late evening.
    * a último momento = last minute [last-minute].
    * como último recurso = as a last resort, in the last resort.
    * compras de última hora = last-minute shopping.
    * con los últimos avances = state-of-the-art, leading edge.
    * dar el último empujón = go + the last mile, go + the extra mile.
    * dar el último repaso = tie + the pieces together.
    * dar los últimos retoques a = put + the finishing touches on.
    * decir la última palabra = hear + the final word, outface.
    * decisión de última hora = last-minute decision.
    * dejarlo para última hora = leave + it until the last minute.
    * de última generación = enhanced, high-tech, high-end, leading edge.
    * de última hora = last minute [last-minute], late breaking [late-breaking], up-to-the-minute, hot off the griddle.
    * de última línea = streamlined.
    * de última moda = new-fangled [newfangled].
    * de última novedad = streamlined.
    * de último grito = streamlined.
    * de último momento = last minute [last-minute].
    * durante el último año = over the last year.
    * durante los dos últimos meses = over the last couple of months.
    * durante los últimos años = over the past few years, over recent years.
    * durante los últimos + Expresión Temporal = over the past + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante los últimos + Número + años = over the last + Número + years.
    * el último = the latest + Nombre.
    * el último citado = latter.
    * el último grito = the last word, the cat's meow, the bee's knees, the cat's pyjamas, the cat's whiskers, the dog's bollocks.
    * el último pero no el menos importante = the last but by no means least.
    * en el último caso = in the latter case.
    * en el último minuto = last minute [last-minute], at the last minute.
    * en el último momento = at the eleventh hour, at the very last minute, at the very last moment, at the very last, at the last minute.
    * en las últimas = fag-end, goner.
    * en las últimas décadas = in recent decades.
    * en los dos últimos meses = over the last couple of months.
    * en los últimos años = in recent years, over the recent past, in the last few years.
    * en los últimos años de = in the last years of.
    * en los últimos días = in recent days.
    * en los últimos + Expresión Temporal = over the past + Expresión Temporal.
    * en los últimos meses = in recent months.
    * en los últimos + Tiempo = in the past + Tiempo.
    * en los últimos tiempos = latterly, in recent times, in modern times, in recent memory.
    * en última instancia = ultimately, in the long run, in the end, in the last analysis, in the last resort, in the final analysis.
    * en último término = in the last analysis, in the final analysis.
    * estar en las últimas = be on + Posesivo + last legs.
    * estudiante de último año = senior student, senior.
    * estudiante de último curso = final year student.
    * estudiante universitario de último curso = senior major.
    * hacer el último esfuerzo = go + the last mile, go + the extra mile.
    * hasta el último minuto = until the last minute.
    * hasta última hora = until the last minute.
    * información de última hora = news flash.
    * la última palabra = the last word, the last word, the bee's knees, the cat's pyjamas, the cat's meow, the cat's whiskers, the dog's bollocks.
    * la última vez = last time.
    * la última vez que = the last time.
    * lista de últimas adquisiciones = accessions list, list of current acquisitions, addition list.
    * llevar Algo a sus últimas consecuencias = take + Nombre + to its ultimate conclusion.
    * los últimos coletazos = fag-end.
    * lo último = the last word.
    * ¡maricón el último! = the devil take the hindmost.
    * nacido el último = lastborn.
    * noticia de última hora = hot off the press(es).
    * noticias de última hora = breaking news.
    * pendiente de ir a la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * pendiente de seguir la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * persona que toma la última decisión = decider.
    * por última vez = for the last time, one last time.
    * por último = finally, last, lastly, ultimately.
    * por último pero no menos importante = last but not least.
    * precipitación de última hora = last-minute rush.
    * prisa de última hora = last-minute rush.
    * que siempre va a la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * que sigue la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * sección de últimos números de publicaciones periódicas = current periodicals area.
    * seguidor de la última moda = faddish, faddy [faddier -comp., faddies -sup.].
    * ser el último grito = be all the rage.
    * ser el último mono = feel + pulled and tugged.
    * ser la última palabra = be all the rage.
    * ser la última persona del mundo que + Infinitivo = be one of the last people in the world to + Infinitivo.
    * ser lo último = be all the rage, be the pits.
    * ser lo último en = become + the next stop in.
    * ser lo último en lo que + pensar = be the last thing of + Posesivo + mind.
    * ser lo último que + ocurrir + a Alguien = be the last thing of + Posesivo + mind.
    * tener la última palabra = have + the ultimate say, have + the final say, call + the shots, be the boss, call + the tune, rule + the roost.
    * Ultima Cena, la = Last Supper, the.
    * última oportunidad, la = last chance, the.
    * última palabra + depender de = ultimate authority + rest with.
    * últimas novedades de = fresh out from.
    * Posesivo + últimas palabras = last words, Posesivo + dying last words.
    * últimas palabras que se han hecho famosas = famous last words.
    * último aliento = death rattle, Posesivo + last breath.
    * último escalafón, el = bottom rung, the.
    * último mencionado, el = last mentioned, the.
    * último nivel, el = bottom rung, the.
    * último número, el = latest issue, the.
    * último pero no el menos importante, el = final and not the least important, the.
    * último recurso = fall-back [fallback], last resort, last ditch.
    * último rincón, el = nooks and crannies.
    * últimos coletazos = Indian summer.
    * últimos ritos, los = final rites, the.
    * último suspiro = last breath.
    * último tramo, el = last leg, the.
    * último trecho, el = last leg, the.
    * una primera y última vez = a first and last time.
    * una última vez = one last time.
    * un + Nombre + a última hora de la mañana = a late morning + Nombre.
    * vestido a la última = fashion statement.
    * vestido a la última moda = fashion statement.
    * * *
    I
    - ma adjetivo (delante del n)
    1)
    a) ( en el tiempo) last

    en el último momento or a última hora — at the last minute o moment

    ¿cuándo fue la última vez que lo usaste? — when did you last use it?

    en los últimos tiempos — recently, in recent years (o months etc)

    2)
    a) ( en una serie) last

    último aviso a los pasajeros del vuelo... — last o final call for passengers on flight...

    b) (como adv) (CS) <salir/terminar> last
    •
    II
    - ma masculino, femenino last one

    ¿sabes la última que me hizo? — do you know what he's done to me now?

    ¿te cuento la última? — (fam) do you want to hear the latest? (colloq)

    a últimos de — (Esp) toward(s) the end of

    por último — finally, lastly

    en (Col) or (Ven) de últimas — as a last resort, if the worst comes to the worst

    a la última — (fam)

    * * *
    = last, latter, ultimate, innermost, final, back marker.

    Ex: We now come to the sixth and last condition of authorship.

    Ex: The former necessitate the constant comparison, or manipulation, of index entries rather than the linear scanning of entries in the latter.
    Ex: Abstracting and indexing data are a vital component in the communication link between the originator of information and its ultimate consumer.
    Ex: Thus a folio gathering might consist of three folio sheets, the outermost of which contained pages 1 and 12 and pages 2 and 11; the middle sheet had pages 3 and 10, 4 and 9; and the innermost sheet had pages 5 and 8, 6 and 7.
    Ex: The final index will mirror current terminology.
    Ex: I went right off Hamilton when he referred to back markers as something like 'those monkeys who get in the way' half way through the first season.
    * a la última = hip [hipper -comp., hippest -sup.], on the fast track, hipped.
    * a última hora = at the last minute, at the eleventh hour, last minute [last-minute], at the very last minute, at the very last moment, at the very last.
    * a últimas horas de la tarde = late evening.
    * a último momento = last minute [last-minute].
    * como último recurso = as a last resort, in the last resort.
    * compras de última hora = last-minute shopping.
    * con los últimos avances = state-of-the-art, leading edge.
    * dar el último empujón = go + the last mile, go + the extra mile.
    * dar el último repaso = tie + the pieces together.
    * dar los últimos retoques a = put + the finishing touches on.
    * decir la última palabra = hear + the final word, outface.
    * decisión de última hora = last-minute decision.
    * dejarlo para última hora = leave + it until the last minute.
    * de última generación = enhanced, high-tech, high-end, leading edge.
    * de última hora = last minute [last-minute], late breaking [late-breaking], up-to-the-minute, hot off the griddle.
    * de última línea = streamlined.
    * de última moda = new-fangled [newfangled].
    * de última novedad = streamlined.
    * de último grito = streamlined.
    * de último momento = last minute [last-minute].
    * durante el último año = over the last year.
    * durante los dos últimos meses = over the last couple of months.
    * durante los últimos años = over the past few years, over recent years.
    * durante los últimos + Expresión Temporal = over the past + Expresión Temporal.
    * durante los últimos + Número + años = over the last + Número + years.
    * el último = the latest + Nombre.
    * el último citado = latter.
    * el último grito = the last word, the cat's meow, the bee's knees, the cat's pyjamas, the cat's whiskers, the dog's bollocks.
    * el último pero no el menos importante = the last but by no means least.
    * en el último caso = in the latter case.
    * en el último minuto = last minute [last-minute], at the last minute.
    * en el último momento = at the eleventh hour, at the very last minute, at the very last moment, at the very last, at the last minute.
    * en las últimas = fag-end, goner.
    * en las últimas décadas = in recent decades.
    * en los dos últimos meses = over the last couple of months.
    * en los últimos años = in recent years, over the recent past, in the last few years.
    * en los últimos años de = in the last years of.
    * en los últimos días = in recent days.
    * en los últimos + Expresión Temporal = over the past + Expresión Temporal.
    * en los últimos meses = in recent months.
    * en los últimos + Tiempo = in the past + Tiempo.
    * en los últimos tiempos = latterly, in recent times, in modern times, in recent memory.
    * en última instancia = ultimately, in the long run, in the end, in the last analysis, in the last resort, in the final analysis.
    * en último término = in the last analysis, in the final analysis.
    * estar en las últimas = be on + Posesivo + last legs.
    * estudiante de último año = senior student, senior.
    * estudiante de último curso = final year student.
    * estudiante universitario de último curso = senior major.
    * hacer el último esfuerzo = go + the last mile, go + the extra mile.
    * hasta el último minuto = until the last minute.
    * hasta última hora = until the last minute.
    * información de última hora = news flash.
    * la última palabra = the last word, the last word, the bee's knees, the cat's pyjamas, the cat's meow, the cat's whiskers, the dog's bollocks.
    * la última vez = last time.
    * la última vez que = the last time.
    * lista de últimas adquisiciones = accessions list, list of current acquisitions, addition list.
    * llevar Algo a sus últimas consecuencias = take + Nombre + to its ultimate conclusion.
    * los últimos coletazos = fag-end.
    * lo último = the last word.
    * ¡maricón el último! = the devil take the hindmost.
    * nacido el último = lastborn.
    * noticia de última hora = hot off the press(es).
    * noticias de última hora = breaking news.
    * pendiente de ir a la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * pendiente de seguir la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * persona que toma la última decisión = decider.
    * por última vez = for the last time, one last time.
    * por último = finally, last, lastly, ultimately.
    * por último pero no menos importante = last but not least.
    * precipitación de última hora = last-minute rush.
    * prisa de última hora = last-minute rush.
    * que siempre va a la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * que sigue la última moda = fashion-conscious.
    * sección de últimos números de publicaciones periódicas = current periodicals area.
    * seguidor de la última moda = faddish, faddy [faddier -comp., faddies -sup.].
    * ser el último grito = be all the rage.
    * ser el último mono = feel + pulled and tugged.
    * ser la última palabra = be all the rage.
    * ser la última persona del mundo que + Infinitivo = be one of the last people in the world to + Infinitivo.
    * ser lo último = be all the rage, be the pits.
    * ser lo último en = become + the next stop in.
    * ser lo último en lo que + pensar = be the last thing of + Posesivo + mind.
    * ser lo último que + ocurrir + a Alguien = be the last thing of + Posesivo + mind.
    * tener la última palabra = have + the ultimate say, have + the final say, call + the shots, be the boss, call + the tune, rule + the roost.
    * Ultima Cena, la = Last Supper, the.
    * última oportunidad, la = last chance, the.
    * última palabra + depender de = ultimate authority + rest with.
    * últimas novedades de = fresh out from.
    * Posesivo + últimas palabras = last words, Posesivo + dying last words.
    * últimas palabras que se han hecho famosas = famous last words.
    * último aliento = death rattle, Posesivo + last breath.
    * último escalafón, el = bottom rung, the.
    * último mencionado, el = last mentioned, the.
    * último nivel, el = bottom rung, the.
    * último número, el = latest issue, the.
    * último pero no el menos importante, el = final and not the least important, the.
    * último recurso = fall-back [fallback], last resort, last ditch.
    * último rincón, el = nooks and crannies.
    * últimos coletazos = Indian summer.
    * últimos ritos, los = final rites, the.
    * último suspiro = last breath.
    * último tramo, el = last leg, the.
    * último trecho, el = last leg, the.
    * una primera y última vez = a first and last time.
    * una última vez = one last time.
    * un + Nombre + a última hora de la mañana = a late morning + Nombre.
    * vestido a la última = fashion statement.
    * vestido a la última moda = fashion statement.

    * * *
    último1 -ma
    A
    los últimos años de su vida the last years of her life, her last years
    en el último momento or a última hora at the last minute o moment
    2
    (más reciente): ¿cuándo fue la última vez que lo usaste? when did you last use it?, when was the last time you used it?
    su último libro es muy bueno his latest book is very good
    lo último que supe de él es que vivía en París the last I heard he was living in Paris
    la última moda the latest fashion
    los últimos estudios the latest o the most recent studies
    en los últimos tiempos recently, in recent years ( o months etc)
    B
    estaba en último lugar I was last, I was in last place
    el último tren sale a las once the last train leaves at eleven
    último aviso a los pasajeros del vuelo … last o final call for passengers on flight …
    el equipo ocupa el último puesto de la división the team is at the bottom of the division o is in last place in the division
    te lo digo por última vez I'm telling you for the last o final time
    le echaré una última mirada I'll take one last o final look
    como último recurso as a last resort
    ser lo último ( fam) (el colmo) to be the last straw o the limit; (lo más reciente) to be the latest thing
    2 ( como adv) (CS) ‹salir/terminar› last
    el que salga último que apague la luz last one out o whoever is last out, turn the light off
    llegó última en la carrera she finished last in the race
    C
    (en el espacio): en el último piso on the top floor
    en la última fila in the back row
    la última página del periódico the back page of the newspaper
    aunque tenga que ir al último rincón del mundo even if I have to go to the ends of the earth
    D
    (definitivo): es mi última oferta it's my final offer
    siempre tiene que decir la última palabra he always has to have the last word
    Compuestos:
    feminine Last Supper
    feminine late item (of news)
    feminine ( period); last resting place ( frml)
    feminine last wishes (pl), last wish
    mpl last rites o sacraments (pl)
    último2 -ma
    masculine, feminine
    last one
    era el último que me quedaba it was my last one, it was the last one I had
    el último en llegar the last (one) to arrive
    ¿quién es el último? who's last in line ( AmE) o ( BrE) in the queue?
    salió el último he was the last to leave
    el último de la lista the last person on the list
    es el último de la clase he's bottom of the class
    ¿sabes la última que me hizo? do you know what he's done to me now?
    ¿te cuento la última? ( fam); do you want to hear the latest? ( colloq)
    a últimos de ( Esp); toward(s) the end of
    por último finally, lastly
    y por último quiero decir que … and finally o lastly, I would like to say that …
    en ( Col) or ( Ven) de últimas as a last resort, if the worst comes to the worst
    a la última ( fam): siempre va a la última she's always fashionably dressed, she always wears trendy clothes
    está a la última it's the latest fashion, it's all the rage ( colloq)
    (no tener dinero) ( fam) to be broke ( colloq)
    tomar la última ( fam); to have one for the road ( colloq)
    * * *

     

    Del verbo ultimar: ( conjugate ultimar)

    ultimo es:

    1ª persona singular (yo) presente indicativo

    ultimó es:

    3ª persona singular (él/ella/usted) pretérito indicativo

    Multiple Entries:
    ultimar    
    último
    ultimar ( conjugate ultimar) verbo transitivo
    1 ‹ preparativos› to complete;
    ‹ detalles› to finalize
    2 (AmL frml) ( matar) to kill, murder
    último
    ◊ -ma adjetivo ( delante del n)

    1 ( en el tiempo) last;
    ◊ a última hora at the last minute o moment;

    su último libro his latest book;
    en los últimos tiempos recently;
    ¿cuándo fue la última vez que lo usaste? when did you last use it?
    2


    por última vez for the last time;
    como último recurso as a last resort;
    última voluntad last wishes (pl)
    b) ( como adv) (CS) ‹salir/terminar› last

    3 ( en el espacio):

    la última fila the back row
    4 ( definitivo):

    ■ sustantivo masculino, femenino
    last one;

    es el último de la clase he's bottom of the class;
    a últimos de (Esp) toward(s) the end of;
    por último finally, lastly
    ultimar verbo transitivo
    1 (un proyecto, una tarea) to finalize
    ultimar detalles, to finalize details
    2 LAm (rematar, asesinar) to kill, finish off
    último,-a
    I adjetivo
    1 (sin otro detrás) last: éste es el último caramelo, this is the last sweet
    2 (no preferente, peor de una serie) last: es el último lugar en que habría mirado, it's the last place where I'd look
    3 (más reciente) latest
    última moda, latest fashion
    según las últimas noticias, according to the latest news
    4 (más remoto) farther: la vacuna tiene que llegar hasta la última aldea del continente, the vaccine must reach the most remote village on the continent
    5 (más alto) top
    el último piso, the top floor
    6 (definitivo) last, final: era su última oferta, it was his final offer
    mi última oportunidad, my last chance
    7 (al final de un periodo de tiempo) a últimos de mes, towards the end of the month
    II pron last one: los últimos en llegar fuimos nosotros, we were the last to arrive
    el último de la fila, the last one in the queue
    ♦ Locuciones: estar en las últimas, (un enfermo) to be at death's door
    fam (carecer de dinero, comida) to be broke
    (estar acabándose) to be about to run out
    ser lo último, to be the last
    (algo indigno, inaceptable) mendigar es lo último, having to beg is the pits
    a la última, up to the minute
    de última hora: una decisión de última hora, a last-minute decision
    una noticia de última hora, a newsflash
    por último, finally

    ' último' also found in these entries:
    Spanish:
    abajo
    - caso
    - decidir
    - ensalzar
    - faltar
    - fin
    - hasta
    - inspección
    - ligue
    - llegar
    - memoria
    - número
    - para
    - pasada
    - pasado
    - recordar
    - remedio
    - rozar
    - sprint
    - suspiro
    - término
    - última
    - arriba
    - aviso
    - el
    - en
    - extremo
    - grito
    - lugar
    - mono
    - recurso
    - rincón
    English:
    afterthought
    - bottom
    - burst
    - cancel
    - come
    - eleventh
    - enjoy
    - final
    - finally
    - height
    - hot news
    - last
    - last-ditch
    - lastly
    - latest
    - latter
    - laugh
    - LIFO
    - outermost
    - parting
    - past
    - push
    - rage
    - refer to
    - resort
    - senior
    - spurt
    - state-of-the-art
    - stave off
    - title
    - top
    - touch
    - word
    - year
    - after
    - close
    - current
    - dying
    - fail
    - inch
    - late
    - line
    - memorial
    - most
    - nook
    - scramble
    - state
    - survive
    - ultimate
    * * *
    último, -a
    ♦ adj
    1. [en una serie, en el tiempo] last;
    mi última esperanza/oportunidad my last hope/chance;
    hizo un último intento he made one last o final attempt;
    último aviso para los pasajeros… [por megafonía] (this is the) last o final call for passengers…;
    decisiones de última hora last-minute decisions;
    a última hora, en el último momento at the last moment;
    como último recurso as a last resort;
    a lo último in the end;
    lo último antes de acostarme last thing before I go to bed;
    en una situación así es lo último que haría it's the last thing I'd do in a situation like that;
    por último lastly, finally;
    ser lo último [lo final] to come last;
    [el último recurso] to be a last resort; [el colmo] to be the last straw la Última Cena the Last Supper;
    último pago final payment;
    último plazo final instalment;
    los últimos sacramentos the last sacraments;
    última voluntad last wish(es)
    2. [más reciente] latest, most recent;
    una exposición de sus últimos trabajos an exhibition of her most recent work;
    las últimas noticias son inquietantes the latest news is very worrying;
    en los últimos días/meses in recent days/months;
    la última vez que lo vi the last time I saw him, when I last saw him;
    Fam
    es lo último en electrodomésticos it's the latest thing in electrical appliances
    última hora [como título] latest, stop press;
    noticias de última hora last-minute news
    3. [más bajo] bottom;
    [más alto] top; [de más atrás] back;
    la última línea de la página the bottom o last line of the page;
    el último piso the top floor;
    la última fila the back row
    4. [más remoto] furthest, most remote;
    el último rincón del país the remotest parts of the country
    5. [definitivo]
    es mi última oferta it's my last o final offer;
    tener la última palabra en algo to have the last word on sth
    6. [primordial] ultimate;
    medidas cuyo fin último es… measures that have the ultimate goal of…
    7. RP [uso adverbial] last;
    empezaron últimos, por eso todavía no terminaron they started last, that's why they haven't finished yet;
    salí última porque me quedé conversando I was the last to leave because I stayed behind talking
    ♦ nm,f
    1. [en fila, carrera]
    el último the last (one);
    el último de la fila the last person in the Br queue o US line;
    el último de la clase the bottom of the class;
    es el último al que pediría ayuda he's the last person I'd ask for help;
    llegar/terminar el último to come/finish last;
    ser el último en hacer algo to be the last to do sth;
    a últimos de mes at the end of the month;
    ¿nos tomamos la última? shall we have one for the road?;
    estar en las últimas [muriéndose] to be on one's deathbed;
    [sin dinero] to be down to one's last penny; [sin provisiones] to be down to one's last provisions; [botella, producto] to have almost run out; Fam
    ir a la última to wear the latest fashion
    2. [en comparaciones, enumeraciones]
    este último… the latter…
    * * *
    adj
    1 last;
    ser el último en llegar be the last (one) to arrive;
    por último finally;
    está en las últimas he doesn’t have long (to live);
    a últimos de mayo at the end of May
    2 ( más reciente) latest;
    últimas noticias latest news sg ;
    estar a la última be right up to date;
    ir a la última (moda) wear the latest fashions;
    es lo último it’s the latest thing
    3 piso top atr
    * * *
    último, -ma adj
    1) : last, final
    la última galleta: the last cookie
    en último caso: as a last resort
    2) : last, latest, most recent
    su último viaje a España: her last trip to Spain
    en los últimos años: in recent years
    3)
    por último : finally
    * * *
    último1 adj
    1. (en general) last
    2. (más reciente) latest
    3. (más abajo) bottom
    último2 n last one
    ¿quién es el último? who's last in the queue?

    Spanish-English dictionary > último

  • 13 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
    "
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
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    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
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    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

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